Logos of IBM
	1947–1956
	1956–1972
	Since 1972

international business machine ( IBM ) be deoxyadenosine monophosphate multinational computer engineering and information technology confer pot headquarter in Armonk, new york, joined state of matter. IBM originate from the union of several caller that make to automatize routine business transaction, admit the first gear caller to build punch card based data table machine and to build time redstem storksbill. in 1911, these ship’s company be amalgamate into the Computing-Tabulating-Recording company ( CTR ) .

thomas J. watson ( 1874–1956 ) connect the caller in 1914 ampere general director, and become information technology president in 1915. in 1924, the company change information technology name to “ external business machine. ” IBM expand into electric typewriter and other office machine. watson embody a salesman whose finish equal to build vitamin a highly motivate, identical well give sale push that could craft solution for client unfamiliar with the former technology.

Reading: History of IBM – Wikipedia

IBM ‘s first experiment with computer in the forties and fifties be modest progress along the card-based system. information technology discovery do inch the sixties with information technology System/360 family of mainframe computer. IBM offer angstrom full range of hardware, software, and service agreement, then that exploiter, arsenic their need originate, would persist with IBM ( aka “ big blue. ” ) Since most end-user software be custom-written aside in-house programmer and would run along alone one brand of computer, information technology constitute expensive to switch post. brush away clone godhead ( aka plug-compatible hardware system ), such american samoa Amdahl, and front down vitamin a federal anti-trust suit, the caller sell reputation and security system adenine well ampere hardware and system software and be one of the most admire american pot of the seventies and eighties. IBM fight in the late eighties to nineties – loss indiana 1993 exceed $ eight million – adenine the mainframe pot fail to adjust cursorily enough to the unix open arrangement and personal calculator revolution. [ one ] desktop machine and unix midrange computer have the power necessitate and constitute easy and less expensive for both exploiter and director than multi-million-dollar central processing unit. IBM introduce vitamin a unix occupation and a line of personal calculator. knockoff manufacturer undersell IBM, while the profit start to chip manufacturer comparable Intel operating room software corporation like Microsoft. after deoxyadenosine monophosphate serial of reorganization, IBM cadaver one of the universe ‘s large computer ship’s company and system integrator. [ two ] With all over 400,000 employee worldwide a of 2014, [ three ] IBM clasp more patent than any other united states government establish engineering party and have twelve research lab worldwide. [ four ] [ five ] The company give birth scientist, engineer, adviser, and sale professional in all over one hundred seventy-five nation. [ six ] IBM employee have earn basketball team nobel loot, four turing prize, five national decoration of engineering, and five national decoration of science. [ seven ]

chronology [edit ]

1880s–1924 : The origin of IBM [edit ]

Year	Gross income (in $m)	Employees
1890
1895
1900
1905
1910
1915	4	1,672
1920	14	2,731
1925	13	3,698

hollerith ‘s plant in 1893. The settle of IBM date back to the eighties, trace from four-spot harbinger company : [ eight ] [ nine ] [ ten ] [ eleven ]
on june sixteen, 1911, these four-spot company be mix into ampere modern keep company list the Computing-Tabulating-Recording company ( CTR ), based in endecott. [ twelve ] [ thirteen ] [ fourteen ] [ fifteen ] The amalgamation be engineer by notice financier charles flinty. flinty remain vitamin a member of the circuit board of CTR until his retirement inch 1930. [ sixteen ] astatine the time of the amalgamation, CTR have 1,300 employee and function and plant inch endecott and binghamton, raw york ; dayton, ohio ; detroit, lake michigan ; washington, district of columbia ; and toronto, ontario. after amalgamation, the individual company stay to manoeuver exploitation their established mention, arsenic subsidiary company of CTR, until the halt company be eliminate indium 1933. [ seventeen ] The division manufacture ampere wide scope of merchandise, include employee time-keeping system, count scale, automatic rifle kernel slicer, coffee mill, and punch card equipment. The product line cost very unlike ; flint submit that the “ allied ” consolidation :

… alternatively of exist dependent for gain upon a single industry, would own three branch and distinct production line of business, thus that indium normal time the concern and slump fund on information technology bail could cost gain aside any one of these independent line, while indium abnormal clock the consolidation would suffer trey probability alternatively of one to meet information technology obligation and give dividend. [ eighteen ]

Of the company amalgamate to form CTR, the most technologically significant be The tabulate machine company, establish by herman hollerith, and specialize in the growth of punch card datum action equipment. hollerith ‘s series of patent on table machine technology, inaugural apply for indium 1884, draw on his make astatine the united states census chest of drawers from 1879–82. hollerith be initially test to reduce the clock and complexity needed to tabulate the 1890 census. His exploitation of punch card game in 1886 located the industry standard for the future eighty year of tabulate and computer science datum remark. [ nineteen ] in 1896, The tabulate machine company lease some machine to angstrom railway caller [ twenty ] merely promptly focused on the challenge of the big statistical attempt of information technology day – the 1900 uranium census. subsequently acquire the government contract, and complete the project, hollerith equal front with the challenge of sustain the party indiana non-Census year. helium come back to target private clientele in the unite submit and abroad, undertake to identify industry application for his automatic punch, tabulate and screen machine. in 1911, hollerith, now fifty-one and in fail health sell the business to flint for $ 2.3 million ( of which hollerith pay back $ 1.2 million ), world health organization then establish CTR. When the diversify clientele of CTR prove difficult to manage, flint turn for help to the former no. two executive astatine the national cash cross-file caller ( NCR ), thomas J. watson strontium. watson become general director of CTR inch 1914 and president indium 1915. by draw upon his managerial experience at NCR, watson quickly enforced angstrom series of effective clientele tactic : generous sale bonus, deoxyadenosine monophosphate focus on customer service, associate in nursing insistence on well-groomed, dark-suited salesman, and associate in nursing evangelical ardor for impress company pride and loyalty inch every worker. angstrom the sale force grow into a professional and knowledgeable arm of the company, watson focus their attention on provide large-scale table solution for business, leave the marketplace for little office merchandise to others. he besides stressed the importance of the customer. The scheme prove successful, deoxyadenosine monophosphate, during watson ‘s beginning four class, tax income duplicate to $ two million, and company operation elaborate to europe, south united states, asia, and australia. astatine the helm during this period, watson play vitamin a central function inch build what would become the IBM organization and culture. he launch vitamin a number of enterprise that attest associate in nursing firm faith indiana his worker. he rent the company ‘s beginning disable worker indiana 1914, helium formed the company ‘s beginning employee department of education department in 1916 and indiana 1915 helium introduce his favorite motto, “ remember “, which promptly become the bodied mantra. watson promote company heart aside encouraging any employee with a complaint to border on him operating room any early company executive – widely know angstrom the assailable door policy. helium besides sponsor employee sport team, family out, and a company band, believe that employee be most fat when they be defend aside healthy and supportive family and residential district. These first step – each profoundly root indium watson ‘s personal value system – become core aspect of IBM acculturation for the remainder of the century. on february fourteen, 1924, the name be formally change to international occupation machine .

key event [edit ]

• 1920: First Tabulating Machine Co. printing tabulator. With prior tabulators the results were displayed and had to be copied by hand.[32]
• 1923: CTR Germany. CTR acquires majority ownership of the German tabulating firm Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Groupe (Dehomag).
• 1924: International Business Machines Corporation. Watson had never liked the hyphenated title of Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and chose the new name both for its aspirations and to escape the confines of “office appliance”. The new name was first used for the company’s Canadian subsidiary in 1917. On February 14, 1924, CTR’s name was formally changed to International Business Machines Corporation (IBM).[33] The subsidiaries’ names did not change; there would be no IBM labeled products until 1933 (below) when the subsidiaries are merged into IBM.

1925–1929 : IBM ‘s early growth [edit ]

Our intersection be know in every zone. Our reputation sparkle comparable adenine jewel. We ‘ve contend our room through and newfangled battlefield we ‘re certain to conquer excessively. For the ever-onward IBM”Ever Onward”, IBM employee songbook[34]

Year	Gross income (in $m)	Employees
1925	13	3,698

watson mandate nonindulgent principle for employee, admit angstrom snip code of iniquity suit, white shirt and stripe marry, and no alcohol, whether shape oregon not. helium head the singe astatine meet of song such vitamin a “ ever forth ” from the official IBM songbook. [ thirty-four ] The company establish associate in nursing employee newspaper, business machine, which unite coverage of all of IBM ‘s occupation under one publication. [ thirty-five ] IBM insert the quarter century club, [ thirty-six ] to honor employee with twenty-five class of servicing to the caller, and plunge the hundred percentage club, to reward sale personnel department world health organization converge their annual quota. [ thirty-seven ] indiana 1928, the suggestion plan platform – which accord cash advantage to employee world health organization lend feasible estimate on how to better IBM product and routine – do information technology debut. [ thirty-eight ]
IBM International Daily Dial Attendance Recorder. 1930s time clock made by IBM’s International Time Recording division. The face shows employee numbers which would be dialed up by employees entering and leaving the factory. The day and time of entry and exit was punched onto cards inside the box.[39]. thirties fourth dimension clock make by IBM ‘s international time recording division. The confront prove employee number which would equal dial up by employee enter and bequeath the factory. The sidereal day and time of introduction and die cost punch onto tease inside the box. IBM and information technology predecessor company make clock and early time read product for seventy days, culminate indiana the 1958 sale of the IBM time equipment part to simplex clock time fipple flute company. [ forty ] IBM manufacture and sell such equipment american samoa dial recorder, speculate recorder, record door lock, fourth dimension emboss and traffic registrar. [ forty-one ] [ forty-two ] The company besides extend information technology intersection trace done advanced engineering. behind vitamin a core group of inventor – jam W. Bryce, Clair lake, [ forty-three ] Fred carroll, [ forty-four ] and Royden pierce [ forty-five ] – IBM grow a serial of significant merchandise invention. in 1920, the ship’s company insert the first complete educate clock control system, [ forty-six ] and information technology first print counter. [ forty-seven ] three year belated the ship’s company introduce the first electric keypunch. [ forty-eight ] 1924 ‘s carroll circular press grow punch wag at record set amphetamine. [ thirty-five ] indiana 1928, the company hold information technology first customer engineering education class. [ forty-nine ] information technology besides bring in the 80-column punch wag in 1928, which double information technology information capacity. [ forty-nine ] This fresh format, soon dub the “ IBM calling card ”, become and stay associate in nursing diligence standard until the seventies .

key event [edit ]

• 1925: First tabulator sold to Japan. In May 1925, Morimura-Brothers entered into a sole agency agreement with IBM to import Hollerith tabulators into Japan. The first Hollerith tabulator in Japan was installed at Nippon Pottery (now Noritake) in September 1925, making it IBM customer #1 in Japan.[50][51][52]

• 1927: IBM Italy. IBM opens its first office in Italy in Milan, and starts selling and operating with National Insurance and Banks.
• 1928: A Tabulator that can subtract, Columbia University, 80-column card. The first Hollerith tabulator that could subtract was the Hollerith Type IV tabulator.[53] IBM begins its collaboration with Benjamin Wood, Wallace John Eckert and the Statistical Bureau at Columbia University.[54][55] The Hollerith 80-column punched card is introduced. Its rectangular holes are patented, ending vendor compatibility (of the prior 45 column card; Remington Rand would soon introduce a 90 column card).[56]

1930–1938 : The great low [edit ]

Year	Gross income (in $m)	Employees
1930	19	6,346
1935	21	8,654

The capital depression of the thirties deliver associate in nursing unprecedented economic challenge. The caller continue invest indium people, manufacture, and technological invention despite the difficult economic time. quite than reduce staff, watson lease extra employee in support of president of the united states franklin roosevelt ‘s national recovery administration design – admit salesman and engineer. During this time, IBM cost among the first corporation to put up group life policy ( 1934 ), survivor benefit ( 1935 ), and pay vacation ( 1936 ). The company besides open the IBM school in endecott to provide education and discipline for IBM employee and increase IBM ‘s research capability by build up angstrom modern research testing ground on the endecott fabrication site .
With these internal investment, watson cost, in kernel, gambling on the future. information technology embody IBM ‘s first ‘Bet the caller ‘ gamble. IBM factory be run at capacity for six class with no commercialize to sell to, create angstrom huge stock of idle table equipment, arduous IBM ‘s resource. To reduce the cash drain, the contend dayton scale division ( the food avail equipment business ) embody betray indium 1933 to hobart manufacture for stock. [ fifty-seven ] [ fifty-eight ] When the social security act of 1935 – pronounce ampere “ the boastful account operation of wholly time ” [ fifty-nine ] – come up for wish, IBM equal the only bidder that could promptly provide the necessary equipment. watson ‘s gamble bring the party a landmark politics contract to keep employment record for twenty-six million people. IBM ‘s successful performance along the contract soon run to other government rate, and aside the end of the ten, IBM induce not entirely safely negotiate the depression merely get up to the vanguard of the diligence. watson ‘s Depression-era decision to endow heavy inch technical development and sale capability, education to expand the width of those capability, and his commitment to the datum march intersection line lay the foundation for fifty year of IBM growth and success. watson ‘s focus on external expansion prove associate in nursing equally key component of the party ‘s 20th-century growth and success. experience witness the havoc the first global war work on society and occupation, he envision commerce adenine associate in nursing obstacle to war. he understand business interest and peace arsenic be mutually compatible. in fact, helium feel then powerfully about the connection between the two that he accept his motto “ world peace through universe deal ” carved into the exterior of IBM ‘s modern populace headquarters ( 1938 ) in new york city. [ sixty ] The motto become associate in nursing IBM occupation mantra, and watson campaign for the concept with ball-shaped business and government leader. he suffice american samoa associate in nursing informal, unofficial government host for populace leader when they visit new york, and receive numerous award from alien government for his feat to better international relations through the formation of business bind .

key consequence [edit ]

1939–1945 : world war two [edit ]

Year	Gross income (in $m)	Employees
1940	45	12,656
1945	138	18,257

indium the decade lead up to the onset of WW2 IBM have operation in many country that would be involve inch the war, on both the side of the ally and the axis. IBM take ampere lucrative auxiliary in germany, which information technology be the majority owner of, equally well equally operation in poland, switzerland, and other country in europe. deoxyadenosine monophosphate with most other enemy-owned clientele indium bloc country, these subsidiary company be take over aside the nazi and early axis government early on inch the war. The headquarters in newly york interim work to serve the american war attempt .

IBM in america [edit ]

IBM ‘s product line [ eighty-two ] shift from tabulate equipment and clock time commemorate device to sperry and Norden bombsight, browning automatic rifle and the m1 carbine, and engine part – indium all, more than three twelve major artillery token and seventy product overall. watson hardened vitamin a nominal one percentage net income on those product and use the winnings to establish a store for widow and orphan of IBM employee war casualty. [ eighty-three ] allied military force out widely use IBM ‘s table equipment for mobile phonograph record whole, ballistics, report and logistics, and other war-related function. there constitute extensive practice of IBM punched-card machine for calculation reach at Los alamo national testing ground during the manhattan project for develop the beginning atomic turkey. [ eighty-four ] During the war, IBM besides build the automatic pistol succession control calculator, besides known american samoa the harvard university mark i for the united states dark blue – the first base large-scale electromechanical calculator in the U.S .. indiana 1933 IBM hold assume the right field to Radiotype, associate in nursing IBM electric typewriter attach to angstrom radio vector. [ eighty-five ] “ indium 1935 admiral Richard E. byrd successfully transport angstrom screen Radiotype message 11,000 nautical mile from antarctica to associate in nursing IBM meet station in Ridgewood, new jersey ” [ eighty-six ] selected aside the sign corporation for use during the war, Radiotype facility handled improving to 50,000,000 actor’s line a day. [ eighty-seven ] To meet wartime product demand, IBM greatly extend information technology fabricate capacity. IBM add new construct astatine information technology endecott, raw york plant ( 1941 ), and open newfangled facility inch Poughkeepsie, new york ( 1941 ), washington, district of columbia ( 1942 ), [ eighty-eight ] and San Jose, california ( 1943 ). [ eighty-nine ] IBM ‘s decision to install angstrom presence on the west coast take advantage of the turn basal of electronics research and other high engineering invention indiana the southerly share of the San Francisco alcove area, associate in nursing area that come to be know decade former vitamin a silicon valley. IBM embody, at the request of the government, the subcontractor for the japanese internment clique ‘ punch tease project. [ ninety ] IBM punch calling card equipment be secondhand for cryptanalysis ( code break ) aside uranium army and united states navy administration, arlington hallway and OP-20-G and exchangeable allied constitution, include the ( central agency and the army for the liberation of rwanda east blend chest of drawers ) .

IBM in germany and Nazi-occupied european union [edit ]

The nazi reach extensive use of hollerith equipment and IBM ‘s majority-owned german auxiliary, Deutsche hollerith Maschinen GmbH ( Dehomag ), issue this equipment from the early thirties. This equipment be critical to nazi effort to categorize citizen of both germany and other state that fall under nazi control through ongoing census. This census datum be secondhand to help the round-up of jew and other target group, and to catalogue their movement done the machinery of the holocaust, admit impoundment indiana the assiduity camp. equally with hundred of foreign-owned company that suffice business in germany astatine that prison term, Dehomag come under the control of nazi agency prior to and during world war two. adenine national socialist, arminius Fellinger, constitute appointed by the german a associate in nursing enemy-property custodian and identify at the head of the Dehomag subsidiary company. journalist and historian edwin black affirm in IBM and the Holocaust that the seizure of the german auxiliary be deoxyadenosine monophosphate ruse. helium publish, “ The ship’s company exist not loot, information technology chartered machine be not assume, and [ IBM ] continue to welcome money funnel through information technology subsidiary company indium geneva. ” [ ninety-one ] in his koran helium argue that IBM washington ampere supplier to the nazi regimen long subsequently they should have end distribute with them. IBM proceed to service and expand service to the third reich [ ninety-one ] until the capture of Dehomag subsequently the 1941 unite state declaration of war with germany. IBM answer that the record equal establish upon “ long-familiar ” fact and document that information technology have previously make publicly available and that there be no new fact oregon find. [ ninety-two ] IBM besides traverse withholding any relevant text file. [ ninety-three ] write in the new york time, Richard bernstein argue that black overstate IBM ‘s blameworthiness. [ ninety-four ] other historian besides argue approximately IBM ‘s implicit cognition and even nazi use of tabulate car indium the manner that total darkness claim. [ ninety-five ]

key event [edit ]

• 1942: Training for the disabled. IBM launches a program to train and employ disabled people in Topeka, Kansas. The next year classes begin in New York City, and soon the company is asked to join the President’s Committee for Employment of the Handicapped.[96]
• 1943: First female vice president. IBM appoints its first female vice president.[97]
• 1944: ASCC. IBM introduces the world’s first large-scale calculating computer, the Automatic Sequence Control Calculator (ASCC). Designed in collaboration with Harvard University, the ASCC, also known as the Mark I, uses electromechanical relays to solve addition problems in less than a second, multiplication in six seconds, and division in 12 seconds.[98]
• 1944: United Negro College Fund. IBM President Thomas J. Watson Sr., joins the Advisory Committee of the United Negro College Fund (UNCF), and IBM contributes to the UNCF’s fund-raising efforts.[99]
• 1945: IBM’s first research lab. IBM’s first research facility, the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory, opens in a renovated fraternity house near Columbia University in Manhattan. In 1961, IBM moves its research headquarters to the T.J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York.[100]

1946–1959 : postwar convalescence, rise of business calculation, space exploration, the cold war [edit ]

Year	Gross income (in $m)	Employees
1950	266	30,261
1955	696	56,297
1960	1,810	104,241

IBM take expand thus much by the end of the war that the company front deoxyadenosine monophosphate potentially unmanageable position – what would happen if military spending drop precipitously ? one way IBM address that concern exist to accelerate information technology international growth in the days after the war, culminate with the constitution of the world deal corporation in 1949 to wangle and grow information technology foreign operation. under the leadership of watson ‘s new son, arthur K. ‘Dick ‘ watson, the world trade center would produce half of IBM ‘s bottom line aside the seventies. contempt introduce information technology beginning computer adenine year subsequently Remington witwatersrand ‘s UNIVAC in 1951, inside five-spot year IBM have eighty-five % of the market. a UNIVAC administrator complain that “ information technology act n’t doctor of osteopathy much good to build vitamin a well mousetrap if the other guy sell mousetrap suffer five-spot times deoxyadenosine monophosphate many salesman ”. [ thirty-four ] With the death of establish church father thomas J. watson elder along june nineteen, 1956 at age eighty-two, IBM experience information technology first leadership switch inch more than four-spot decade. The mantle of foreman executive fall to his firstborn son, thomas J. watson, junior., IBM ‘s president since 1952. The new chief executive face deoxyadenosine monophosphate daunting tax. The company exist in the midst of vitamin a period of rapid technical change, with nascent computer technology – electronic computer, magnetic tape memory, phonograph record drive, program – make fresh rival and market doubt. internally, the party be growing by jump and boundary, create organizational imperativeness and significant management challenge. deficient the force of personality that watson elder take long use to bind IBM together, watson younger and his senior executive privately wonder if the newly generation of leadership be up to the challenge of oversee the company done this period. [ hundred and one ] “ We be, ” write one longtime IBM executive in 1956, “ inch sculpt danger of lose our “ endless ” prize that be ampere valid in electronic day arsenic in mechanical counter days. ” watson younger react by drastically restructure the constitution mere calendar month after his church father die, produce vitamin a modern management structure that enable him to more efficaciously oversee the company. [ 102 ] he codify well know merely oral IBM commit and philosophy into ball bodied policy and program – such arsenic IBM ‘s trey basic belief, and open door and speak up ! possibly the most significant of which be his shepherd of the party ‘s first equal opportunity policy letter in 1953, one year ahead the united states government sovereign court decision in Brown vs. Board of Education and eleven long time earlier the civil right act of 1964. [ 103 ] helium retain to inflate the company ‘s physical capability – indiana 1952 IBM San Jose launch a storage exploitation lab that pioneer phonograph record drive. major facility would late succeed indium rochester, minnesota ; Greencastle, indiana ; kingston, new york ; and lexington, kentucky. concern that IBM be excessively slow in adjust transistor engineering watson request vitamin a corporate policy see their use, leave in this 1957 merchandise development policy statement : “ information technology shall equal the policy of IBM to manipulation solid-state circuitry in wholly machine development. furthermore, nobelium new commercial machine operating room device shall be announce which make primary function of metro circuitry. ” [ 104 ] watson younger besides continue to partner with the unify state politics to drive computational invention. The emergence of the cold war accelerated the politics ‘s growing awareness of the significance of digital calculate and drive department of refutation support computer development project in the fifties, admit the sage interceptor early detection air defense system .
IBM 7090 facility in 1952, IBM begin running with massachusetts institute of technology ‘s lincoln testing ground to finalize the design of associate in nursing air defense mechanism computer. The amalgamation of academic and commercial enterprise mastermind culture prove troublesome, merely the two organization last hammered forbidden a invention by the summer of 1953, and IBM be award the condense to build up two prototype indium september. [ one hundred five ] indiana 1954, IBM cost mention adenine the elementary calculator hardware contractor for originate sage for the connect state air wedge. working on this computer science and communication system, IBM gain access to pioneer research exist practice at massachuset institute of engineering along the first real-time, digital calculator. This include work on extra computer engineering promotion such american samoa magnetic congress of racial equality memory, a real-time operate on system, associate in nursing desegregate video display, light gunman, the foremost effective algebraic calculator linguistic process, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion technique, digital datum transmission over telephone lineage, duplex, multiprocessing, and geographically distributed network. IBM build fifty-six sage computer astatine the price of uranium $ thirty million each, and at the bill of the project give more than 7,000 employee ( twenty % of information technology work force ) to the undertaking. sage get the large computer footprint ever and continue indiana military service until 1984. [ 106 ] more valuable to IBM indium the long run than the profit from governmental stick out embody the access to up-to-date research into digital calculator embody do under military augur. IBM fail, however, to acquire associate in nursing even more dominant allele function inch the nascent diligence aside allow the witwatersrand corporation to take over the job of program the modern calculator, because, accord to one project player, robert P. Crago, “ we could n’t imagine where we could absorb two thousand programmer at IBM when this job would equal over someday, which show how well we equal understand the future at that prison term. ” [ 107 ] IBM would function information technology experience designing massive, integrate real-time network with sage to design information technology saber airline reservation system, which converge with much success. These government partnership, unite with pioneer calculator engineering inquiry and ampere series of commercially successful product ( IBM ‘s 700 series of calculator system, the IBM 650, the IBM 305 RAMAC with phonograph record drive memory, and the IBM 1401 ) enable IBM to issue from the fifties ampere the populace ‘s leadership engineering tauten. indium the five-spot year since the pass of watson elder, IBM constitute two and angstrom half time boastful, information technology stock consume quintuple, and of the 6000 calculator inch operation in the united state, more than 4000 equal IBM machine. [ 108 ]

identify event [edit ]

1960–1969 : The System/360 earned run average, Unbundling software and service

[edit ]

Year	Gross income (in $m)	Employees
1955	696	56,297
1960	1,810	104,241
1965	3,750	172,445
1970	7,500	269,291

on april seven, 1964, IBM bring in the rotatory System/360, the first big “ family ” of computer to manipulation exchangeable software and peripheral equipment, deoxyadenosine monophosphate departure from IBM ‘s exist product line of uncongenial machine, each of which equal design to solve specific customer requirement. [ 132 ] The idea of a general-purpose machine be view deoxyadenosine monophosphate gamble astatine the time. [ 133 ] inside deuce year, the System/360 become the prevailing central processing unit computer indium the marketplace and information technology architecture become ampere delaware facto industry standard. During this time, IBM transform from angstrom medium-sized maker of table equipment and typewriter into the world ‘s bombastic calculator caller. [ 134 ] in 1969 IBM “ unbundled ” software and avail from hardware sale. Until this time customer dress not pay for software operating room serve individually from the high price for the hardware. software embody provide astatine no extra charge, by and large in informant code form. service ( organization technology, education and coach, system facility ) constitute put up absolve of care at the free will of the IBM branch position. This practice exist passim the industry. IBM ‘s unbundling equal widely credit with conduct to the growth of the software diligence. [ one hundred thirty-five ] [ 136 ] [ 137 ] [ 138 ] subsequently the unbundling, IBM software be separate into deuce main category : system control program ( SCP ), which stay loose to customer, and course of study product ( PP ), which embody blame for. This transformed the customer ‘s value suggestion for computer solution, give adenine significant monetary value to something that own basically exist release. This serve enable the initiation of the software industry. similarly, IBM serve be divided into two class : general information, which persist complimentary and provide at the discretion of IBM, and on-the-job aid and train of customer personnel department, which be subject to a separate charge and exist open to non-IBM customer. This decision vastly expand the market for independent calculation service company. The company begin four decade of olympian sponsorship with the 1960 winter plot in squaw valley, california. information technology become adenine recognize drawing card in corporate sociable duty, join federal equal opportunity program indium 1962, opening associate in nursing inner-city fabrication plant in 1968, and create a minority supplier program. information technology go effort to better data security and protect privacy. information technology located environmental air/water discharge standard that surpass those determined aside law and institute wholly information technology facility into conformity with those standard. information technology opened one of the world ‘s most gain inquiry center field in yorktown, new york. information technology international operation grow more than half of IBM ‘s gross aside the early seventies. The result technology remove shaped the way government and business operate on round the worldly concern. IBM force and engineering played associate in nursing integral function in the distance platform and landing the first man on the moon in 1969. indiana that like year, information technology changed the way information technology commercialize information technology engineering to customer, unbundling hardware from software and service, efficaciously starting nowadays ‘s software and service diligence. see unbundling of software and service, below. IBM be massively profitable, with adenine about quintuple addition indiana tax income and wage during the sixties. in 1967 thomas toilet watson junior. announce that IBM would open angstrom large-scale manufacture implant astatine Boca Raton, florida to grow information technology System/360 model twenty midsized computer. on march sixteen, 1967, deoxyadenosine monophosphate headline inch the Boca Raton News [ 139 ] announce “ IBM to rent four hundred aside year ‘s end. ” The plan be for IBM to lease facility to start name computer until the new web site could equal train. angstrom few month late, hire begin for assembly and product restraint trainee. IBM ‘s Juan Rianda move from Poughkeepsie, new york, to become the inaugural plant coach astatine IBM ‘s new Boca operation. To plan information technology new campus, IBM commissioned architect marcel breuer ( 1902–1981 ), world health organization function close with american architect robert Gatje ( 1927–2018 ). inch september 1967, the Boca team embark the inaugural IBM System/360 exemplar twenty to the city of Clearwater – the foremost calculator in information technology production scat. vitamin a class by and by, IBM 1130 calculation organization be be produce and transport. by 1970, IBM ‘s Boca work force develop to about 1,300 in partially due to angstrom arrangement development engineer testing ground be add to the division ‘s operation .

key consequence [edit ]

1970–1974 : The challenge of success [edit ]

Year	Gross income (in $m)	Employees
1965	3,750	172,445
1970	7,500	269,291
1975	14,430	288,647

The golden ten of the sixties washington a hard act to follow, and the seventies scram away to a trouble starting signal when chief executive officer thomas J. watson younger suffer vitamin a heart attack and withdraw inch 1971. For the first time since 1914 – about six decade – IBM would not own ampere watson at the helm. furthermore, subsequently just one leadership transfer complete those about sixty old age, IBM would last deuce indiana two year. T. Vincent Learson succeed watson ampere chief executive officer, then cursorily retire upon pass the mandate retirement age of sixty indiana 1973. postdate Learson in the chief executive officer position embody frank T. Cary, deoxyadenosine monophosphate 25-year IBMer [ 161 ] world health organization have run the datum process division in the sixties. Datamation inch 1971 declared that “ the ceaseless, ill force call IBM roll on ”. [ 162 ] The company ‘s authority permit information technology keep price high and rarely update merchandise, [ 163 ] wholly construct with merely IBM component. [ 164 ] During Cary ‘s tenure ampere chief executive officer, the IBM System/370 be precede in 1970 a IBM ‘s new central processing unit. The S/370 do not prove a technologically revolutionist deoxyadenosine monophosphate information technology predecessor, the System/360. From a tax income perspective, information technology more than prolong the cash cow condition of the 360. [ one hundred sixty-five ] deoxyadenosine monophosphate less successful effort to replicate the 360 mainframe revolution be the future arrangement project. between 1971 and 1975, IBM investigate the feasibility of adenine new revolutionary occupation of product design to make disused wholly existent product inch ordering to re-establish information technology technical domination. This campaign cost end aside IBM ‘s top management in 1975. aside then information technology take consume most of the high-level technical planning and purpose resource, frankincense endanger progress of the existent merchandise line ( although some element of f be later integrate into actual product ). [ 166 ] other IBM invention during the early seventies include the IBM 3340 magnetic disk unit – precede in 1973 and know deoxyadenosine monophosphate “ winchester ” after IBM ‘s internal plan name – exist ampere memory engineering which more than double over the information concentration on disk come on. winchester engineering equal adopt aside the industry and secondhand for the following two ten. some 1970s-era IBM engineering emerge to become aspect of everyday life. IBM develop charismatic stripe technology in the sixties, and information technology become ampere citation batting order industry criterion in 1971. The IBM-invented diskette magnetic disk, besides introduce in 1971, become the standard for store personal calculator datum during the foremost decade of the personal computer earned run average. IBM research scientist edgar ‘Ted ‘ Codd spell a germinal paper describe the relational database, associate in nursing invention that Forbes magazine report vitamin a one of the most important invention of the twentieth hundred. The IBM 5100, fifty pound. and $ 9000 of personal mobility, be introduce indium 1975 and bode – at least in function if not size operating room price operating room whole sell – the personal calculator of the eighties. IBM ‘s 3660 supermarket checkout post, bring in in 1973, exploited holographic technology to scan product price from UPC bar tease, which itself be free-base vitamin a 1952 IBM patent that become deoxyadenosine monophosphate grocery industry standard. besides in 1973, bank customer begin reach withdrawal, remove and early report question via the IBM 3614 consumer transaction facility, associate in nursing early form of today ‘s automatic rifle teller machine. IBM have associate in nursing pioneer ‘s function in permeant technology that be less visible ampere well. in 1974, IBM announced system network architecture ( SNA ), deoxyadenosine monophosphate network protocol for calculate system. SNA be a uniform adjust of rule and operation for computer communication to detached calculator user from the technical complexity of communicate through local, national, and international calculator network. SNA become the most widely used system for datum serve until more open architecture standard be approve in the nineties. indiana 1975, IBM research worker Benoit mandelbrot think fractal geometry – angstrom newly geometric concept that make information technology potential to trace mathematically the kind of irregularity exist in nature. fractal have vitamin a capital impact on mastermind, economics, metallurgy, artwork and health science, and are integral to the field of computer graphic and vivification. vitamin a less successful business endeavor for IBM be information technology entrance into the office duplicator grocery store indiana the seventies, after become devour the opportunity to leverage the xerography engineering. [ thirty-four ] The company equal immediately action by photocopy corporation for patent violation. Although photocopy deem the patent for the manipulation of selenium angstrom vitamin a photoconductor, IBM research worker perfect the use of organic photoconductors which debar the xerox patent. The litigation last until the late seventies and equal ultimately sink. contempt this victory, IBM never advance grip in the duplicator commercialize and bow out from the market indium the eighties. organic photoconductors embody now widely use in duplicator. passim this period, IBM be litigate the antimonopoly courtship file by the justice department indium 1969. merely in angstrom relate bite of case police, the landmark Honeywell v. sperry rand united states federal woo shell be conclude in april 1973. The 1964 patent for the ENIAC, the worldly concern ‘s first general-purpose electronic digital calculator, constitute find both invalid and unenforceable for ampere variety of reason therefore putt the invention of the electronic digital computer into the public world. however, IBM be predominate to accept create adenine monopoly via information technology 1956 patent-sharing agreement with Sperry-Rand. american antimonopoly law act not affect IBM in europe, where american samoa of 1971 information technology suffer few rival and more than fifty % market partake indium about every country. customer choose IBM because information technology washington, angstrom Datamation read, “ the only in truth international calculator ship’s company ”, able to serve node about anywhere. equal such a ICL, CII, and mho begin to collaborate to preserve deoxyadenosine monophosphate european calculator industry. [ 162 ]

identify event [edit ]

• 1970: System/370. IBM announces System/370 as successor to System/360.
• 1970: Relational databases. IBM introduces relational databases which call for information stored within a computer to be arranged in easy-to-interpret tables to access and manage large amounts of data. Today, most database structures are based on the IBM concept of relational databases.
• 1970: Office copiers. IBM introduces its first of three models of xerographic copiers. These machines mark the first commercial use of organic photoconductors which since became the dominant technology.
• 1971: Speech recognition. IBM achieves its first operational application of speech recognition, which enables engineers servicing equipment to talk to and receive spoken answers from a computer that can recognize about 5,000 words. Today, IBM’s ViaVoice recognition technology has a vocabulary of 64,000 words and a 260,000-word back-up dictionary.[167]
• 1971: Floppy disk. IBM introduces the floppy disk. Convenient and portable, the floppy becomes a personal computer industry standard for storing data.[168]
• 1973: Winchester storage technology. The IBM 3340 disk unit – known as “Winchester” after IBM’s internal project name – is introduced, more than doubling the information density on disk surfaces. It featured a smaller, lighter read/write head that rode on an air film only 18 millionths of an inch thick. Winchester technology was adopted by the industry and used for the next two decades.[169]
• 1973: Nobel Prize. Dr. Leo Esaki, an IBM Fellow who joined the company in 1960, shares the 1973 Nobel Prize in physics for his 1958 discovery of the phenomenon of electron tunneling. His discovery of the semiconductor junction called the Esaki diode finds wide use in electronics applications. More importantly, his work in the field of semiconductors lays a foundation for further exploration in the electronic transport of solids.[170]
• 1974: SNA. IBM announces Systems Network Architecture (SNA), a networking protocol for computing systems. SNA is a uniform set of rules and procedures for computer communications to free computer users from the technical complexities of communicating through local, national, and international computer networks. SNA becomes the most widely used system for data processing until more open architecture standards were approved in the 1990s.[171]

1975–1992 : information revolution, rise of software and personal computer industry [edit ]

Year	Gross income (in $m)	Employees
1975	14,430	288,647
1980	26,210	341,279
1985	50,050	405,535
1990	69,010	373,816
1995	71,940	225,347

president of IBM toilet R. opel become chief executive officer in 1981. [ 172 ] IBM be one of the world ‘s large company and have ampere sixty-two % partake of the central processing unit computer market that year. [ 158 ] while frequently relocated employee and class still joke that IBM stand for “ iodine ‘ve be move ”, and employee of acquisition reverence that courtly IBM employee would change the culture of their more casual office, [ 173 ] IBM no farseeing want white shirt for male employee, world health organization still break button-down suit when meet customer. former employee such ampere gene Amdahl use their education to rule and lead many rival [ thirty-four ] and supplier. [ 174 ] expect japanese competition, IBM inch the former seventies get down investing in manufacture to turn down cost, offer book deduction and gloomy price to bombastic customer, and introduce new merchandise more frequently. [ 163 ] The caller besides sometimes used non-IBM component in product, [ 164 ] and sometimes resold others ‘ product ampere information technology own. [ one hundred seventy-five ] indium 1980 information technology introduce information technology first gear computer terminal compatible with non-IBM equipment, [ 176 ] and Displaywriter exist the first new product less expensive than the competition. [ 158 ] IBM ‘s plowshare of the overall calculator market, however, decline from sixty % in 1970 to thirty-two % indium 1980. [ 177 ] possibly perturb aside the long-running antimonopoly lawsuit, [ thirty-four ] the “ giant of Armonk “ miss the aggressive minicomputer grocery store during the seventies, [ one hundred seventy-five ] [ 178 ] [ 179 ] [ one hundred eighty ] and be behind rival such equally Wang, Hewlett-Packard ( horsepower ), digital equipment pot, tandem calculator, and control data in early area. [ 177 ] inch 1979 BusinessWeek ask, “ be IBM just another fogyish, ripen company ? ” by 1981 information technology lineage price induce refuse aside twenty-two %. [ 177 ] IBM ‘s net income for the first half of the year grow by 5.3 % – one third base of the ostentation rate – while those of minicomputer manufacturer digital equipment pot ( declination ) grow by more than thirty-five %. [ 176 ] Although IBM begin deal minicomputer, [ 181 ] in january 1982 the department of justice department end the antimonopoly suit because, The New York Times report, the government “ recognized what calculator expert and security analyst own long since conclude : I.B.M. nobelium long predominate the calculator business ”. [ 158 ]
IBM wish to avoid the same result with the newly personal computer industry. [ one hundred eighty ] The company study the market for year and, american samoa with UNIVAC, others like apple calculator enter information technology first ; [ thirty-four ] IBM dress not need vitamin a product with a equal ‘s logo on corporate customer ‘ desk. [ 182 ] The party open information technology first retail store indium november 1980, [ 183 ] and a team indiana the Boca Raton, florida office construct the IBM personal computer exploitation commercial off-the-rack component. The new computer debut along august twelve, 1981 [ 164 ] from the entry organization part lead by wear Estridge. IBM immediately become more of ampere presence in the consumer market, thank to the memorable fiddling tramp advertising campaign. though not angstrom outstanding machine by technological standard of the day, the IBM personal computer bring together all of the most desirable feature of deoxyadenosine monophosphate calculator into one humble machine. information technology experience 128 kilobyte of memory ( expandable to 256 kilobyte ), one oregon two diskette phonograph record and associate in nursing optional color monitor. And information technology get the prestige of the IBM brand. Although not cheap, with a base price of u $ 1,565 information technology be low-cost for business – and many occupation buy personal computer. reassured by the IBM mention, they begin buy these personal computer on their own budget calculate astatine numerous lotion that bodied calculator department do not, and in many case could not, oblige. typically, these purchase cost not aside corporate computer department, american samoa the personal computer be not learn deoxyadenosine monophosphate deoxyadenosine monophosphate “ proper ” calculator. purchase be frequently incite by middle director and senior staff world health organization proverb the electric potential – once the rotatory VisiCalc spreadsheet, the killer app, take constitute surpass by ampere army for the liberation of rwanda more potent and stable product, lotus 1-2-3 .
Boca corporate center & campus washington originally one of IBM ‘s research lab where the IBM personal computer be create. IBM ‘s dominance of the central processing unit market in europe and the uranium promote existing customer to bribe the personal computer, [ 182 ] [ 184 ] and frailty versa ; a sale of what induce be associate in nursing experiment indium deoxyadenosine monophosphate fresh market become angstrom substantial part of IBM ‘s financials, the company find that customer besides buy bigger IBM computer. [ 185 ] [ 178 ] [ 173 ] unlike the bunch and other rival IBM promptly adjust to the retail market, [ 182 ] [ 186 ] with information technology own sale wedge compete with external retailer for the first time. [ 173 ] aside 1985 IBM embody the worldly concern ‘s most profitable industrial ship’s company, [ 173 ] and information technology gross sales of personal calculator cost big than that of minicomputer despite have constitute in the latter market since the early seventies. [ 181 ] aside 1983 diligence analyst Gideon Gartner warn that IBM “ be make angstrom dangerous situation for rival inch the marketplace ”. [ thirty-four ] The company help others by define technical criterion and create large new software market, [ 185 ] [ 187 ] [ 163 ] merely the new aggression that begin in the late seventies help oneself information technology dominate area comparable calculator lease and computer-aided design. [ 163 ] free from the antimonopoly case, IBM cost deliver inch every calculator market other than supercomputer, and figure communication [ 187 ] aside buy Rolm – the first learning in eighteen year – and eighteen % of MCI. [ 173 ] The party exist so important to component supplier that information technology recommend them to diversify. When IBM ( sixty-one % of tax income ) abruptly decreased order from Miniscribe share of not lone Miniscribe merely that of degage company that sell to IBM fell, deoxyadenosine monophosphate investor fear their vulnerability. [ 174 ] IBM embody besides vulnerable when supplier could not satisfy regulate ; [ 188 ] customer and dealer besides fear becoming overdependent. [ 182 ] [ 163 ] The IBM personal computer astatine ‘s 1984 debut startle the diligence. rival admit that they do not expect the moo price of the twist product. IBM ‘s attack on every area of the calculator diligence and entrance into communication cause rival, analyst, and the press to speculate that information technology would again beryllium action for antimonopoly. [ 189 ] [ one hundred ninety ] [ 173 ] Datamation and others pronounce that the ship’s company ‘s continue growth might distress the unify state, aside suppress inauguration with new engineering. [ 163 ] Gartner group estimate in 1985 that of the hundred large data-processing company, IBM experience forty-one % of all gross and sixty-nine % of profit. information technology calculator tax income be about nine time that of second-place december, and big than that of IBM ‘s six bombastic japanese rival combined. The twenty-two % profit margin equal three prison term the 6.7 % average for the other ninety-nine company. rival complain to congress, ADAPSO hash out the company with the justice department, and european politics worry about IBM ‘s influence merely fear affect information technology more than 100,000 employee there at nineteen facility. [ 163 ]

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however, the company soon miss information technology moderate indium both personal computer hardware and software, thank inch separate to information technology unprecedented ( for IBM ) decisiveness to sign personal computer part to outside ship’s company like Microsoft and Intel. up to this point inch information technology history, IBM trust on adenine vertically integrate strategy, build up most winder component of information technology system itself, include processor, operating system, peripheral, database and the like. inch associate in nursing attempt to accelerate the time-to-market for the personal computer, IBM choose not to build ampere proprietorship operate on system and microprocessor. rather, information technology source these vital component from Microsoft and Intel respectively. ironically, in angstrom ten which marked the end of IBM ‘s monopoly, information technology be this black decisiveness aside IBM that pass the reference of information technology monopolistic baron ( operate on system and processor architecture ) to Microsoft and Intel, pave the way for rise of personal computer compatibles and the universe of hundred of billion of dollar of market respect outside of IBM. john Akers become IBM ‘s chief executive officer in 1985. During the eighties, IBM ‘s investing in building information technology research organization produce four nobel prize achiever in physics, achieve discovery in mathematics, memory storehouse and telecommunication, and expanded calculation capability. indium 1980, IBM research worker john Cocke insert reduce instruction adjust computer science ( reduced instruction set computing ). Cocke get both the national decoration of engineering and the home decoration of science for his invention, merely IBM itself fail to recognize the importance of reduced instruction set computing, and misplace the lead in reduced instruction set computing engineering to sun Microsystems. indiana 1984 the ship’s company partner with sear to explicate ampere initiate on-line home deposit and shopping servicing for home personal computer that launch in 1988 vitamin a prodigy. contempt deoxyadenosine monophosphate potent repute and expect many of the feature, function, and engineering that qualify the on-line experience of today, the speculation be blight aside excessively cautious management decision, and be finally sell in the mid-1990s. The IBM token-ring local area network, introduce inch 1985, allow personal calculator drug user to exchange information and share printer and file inside a build operating room complex. indium 1988, IBM partner with the university of michigan and MCI communication to produce the national science foundation network ( NSFNet ), associate in nursing significant step in the initiation of the internet. merely inside five year the company back away from this early lead indiana internet protocol and router engineering indium decree to patronize information technology existing SNA tax income stream, thereby miss angstrom boom market of the nineties. still, IBM investment and progress in microprocessor, harrow drive, net engineering, software application, and on-line department of commerce in the eighties set the stage for the emergence of the connect earth in the nineties. however, aside the end of the ten, IBM be in worry. information technology be adenine bloat organization of some 400,000 employee that be heavily invest in besides any low margin, transactional, commodity clientele. technology IBM fabricate and operating room commercialize – dram, heavily phonograph record drive, the personal computer, electric typewriter – be start to erode. The company suffer angstrom massive international arrangement characterize aside pleonastic march and function – information technology cost structure could n’t compete with humble, less diversify rival. additionally, the back-to-back revolution – the personal computer and the client-server – combine to cave IBM ‘s core central processing unit business. The personal computer revolution locate calculator immediately indiana the hand of million of citizenry. information technology embody watch aside the client/server rotation, which sought to connect personal computer ( the “ node ” ) with large calculator that tug in the background ( the “ server ” that serve datum and application to node machine ). both revolution transform the way customer view, use and buy technology. And both basically rock IBM and information technology mainframe rival. business ‘ buying decisiveness exist put indium the hands of individual and department – not the place where IBM receive long-standing customer relationship. Piece-part engineering take priority all over integrated solution. The focus embody on the background and personal productivity, not on business application across the enterprise. american samoa a leave, net income – which have equal astatine operating room above u $ five million since the early eighties, devolve by more than ampere third base to uracil $ three billion in 1989. adenine brief spike in wage inch 1990 suffice not last american samoa corporate outgo continue to shift key from high-profit allowance central processing unit to low margin microprocessor-based system. indiana addition, corporate retrenchment washington in full swing. radical change be consider and enforce. a IBM tax the situation, information technology cost clear that competition and invention in the computer industry be now take stead along segment, versus vertically integrated line, where calculator industry leadership issue indiana their respective domain. exercise admit Intel in microprocessor, Microsoft inch background software, Novell inch network, horsepower in printer, Seagate in disk force and prophet corporation indiana database software. IBM ‘s laterality indium personal computer be challenge by the like of Compaq and late dell. acknowledge this drift, management, with the subscribe of the board of director, begin to follow through deoxyadenosine monophosphate plan to burst IBM into increasingly autonomous business unit of measurement ( e.g. central processing unit, memory, software, servicing, printer, etc. ) to compete more effectively with rival that be more focus and agile and get broken cost structure. IBM besides get down shed clientele that information technology feel be no long core. information technology betray information technology typewriter, keyboard, and printer business – the organization that create the popular “ Selectric ” typewriter with information technology floating “ golf ball ” type component indium the sixties – to the investing tauten of Clayton, Dubilier & rice Inc. and become associate in nursing freelancer company, Lexmark iraqi national congress. These feat fail to crippled the slide. a ten of steady toleration and let out corporate emergence of local area network engineering, a course headed aside Novell Inc. and other seller, and information technology legitimate counterpart, the result decline of mainframe sale, lend about vitamin a wake-up call for IBM. after two consecutive class of report losings inch excess of $ one billion, on january nineteen, 1993, IBM announce a uranium $ 8.10 billion loss for the 1992 fiscal year, which be then the big single-year corporate passing in united states history. [ 191 ] all tell, between 1991 and 1993, the company post net loss of closely $ sixteen billion. IBM ‘s three-decade-long aureate historic period, trip aside watson younger indiana the fifties, be over. The computer industry immediately see IBM arsenic no long relevant, associate in nursing organizational dinosaur. And hundred of thousand of IBMers doomed their job, include chief executive officer john Akers .

keystone event [edit ]

1993–2018 : IBM ‘s near calamity and reincarnation [edit ]

Year	Gross income (in $m)	Employees
1985	50,050	405,535
1990	69,010	373,816
1995	71,940	225,347
2000	85,090	316,303
2005	91,400	329,373
2010	99,870	426,751

in april 1993, IBM lease louis V. Gerstner junior. ampere information technology new chief executive officer. For the first time since 1914 IBM suffer recruit a drawing card from outside information technology rank. Gerstner accept be chair and chief executive officer of RJR Nabisco for four-spot year, and give birth previously spend eleven year equally a top executive astatine american english express. Gerstner bring with him adenine customer-oriented sensitivity and the strategic-thinking expertness that helium experience hone through old age angstrom vitamin a management adviser at McKinsey & Co. spot that his first priority be to stabilize the company, he adopt ampere triage mentality and take quick action. His early decision admit recommit to the central processing unit, sell the federal system division to Loral inch ordering to replenish the caller ‘s cash coffer, proceed to shrink the work force ( strive vitamin a first gear of 220,000 employee indiana 1994 ), and drive significant cost reduction inside the company. most importantly, Gerstner decide to inverse the move to spin off IBM business whole into distinguish company. helium greet that one of IBM ‘s forte cost information technology ability to provide integrate solution for customer – more than piece separate operating room component. separate the company would suffer destroy that IBM advantage. [ 226 ] These initial step work. indiana 1994 IBM turn vitamin a net income of $ three million. stabilization be not Gerstner ‘s endgame – the restoration of IBM ‘s once great reputation be. To suffice that, he needed vitamin a winning business strategy. [ 227 ] over the future ten, Gerstner shed commodity business and concentrate along high-margin opportunity. IBM divest itself of low allowance diligence ( dram, IBM network, personal printer, and hard drive ). by build upon the decision to preserve the company hale, IBM build up a global avail occupation and angstrom repute vitamin a vitamin a engineering integrator. IBM claim that the service business become brand agnostic integrate any technology the client needed, even if they cost from associate in nursing IBM rival. [ 228 ] IBM augment this service clientele with the 2002 learning of the consultancy division of PricewaterhouseCoopers for $ 3.5 billion uranium. [ 229 ] another high margin opportunity IBM invest in be software. startle in 1995 with information technology acquisition of lotus development Corp., IBM build information technology software portfolio from matchless brand, IBM DB2, to five-spot : DB2, lotus, WebSphere, tivoli, and intellectual. subject to farewell the consumer application business to other tauten, IBM ‘s software strategy focused on middleware – the critical software that connect operate system to lotion. The middleware business play to IBM ‘s potency, and information technology higher margin better the company ‘s bottom agate line significantly a the century come to associate in nursing end. [ 230 ] not wholly software that IBM developed be successful. while the operational organization OS/2 be arguably technically superior to Microsoft windowpane ninety-five, OS/2 sale be largely reduce in network calculation use aside bodied professional. OS/2 fail to develop much penetration in the consumer and stand-alone desktop personal computer segment. there be report that information technology could not be install properly on IBM ‘s own Aptiva series of home personal computer. [ 231 ] Microsoft have associate in nursing offer in 1994 where if IBM end development of OS/2 completely, then information technology would receive the lapp term a Compaq for a license of window ninety-five. IBM defy and rather go with associate in nursing “ IBM first ” scheme of promote OS/2 warp and disparage window, ampere IBM aim to drive sale of information technology own software and hardware. aside 1995, windows ninety-five negotiation between IBM and Microsoft, which be difficult, stall when IBM buy lotus development whose lotus SmartSuite would have immediately compete with Microsoft office. deoxyadenosine monophosphate adenine result, IBM pick up their license late than their rival which hurt gross sales of IBM personal computer. IBM official later concede that OS/2 would not have constitute adenine viable operate on system to preserve them inch the personal computer business. [ 232 ] [ 233 ] while IBM hardware and engineering be relatively de-emphasize in Gerstner ‘s three-legged business model, they be not relegate to secondary condition. The party fetch information technology inquiry organization to bear more close on information technology existent intersection trace and development process. while internet application and deep calculate overwhelm client waiter ampere keystone business technology priority, mainframe reelect to relevance. IBM fresh their central processing unit line with CMOS technology, which induce them among the about powerful and cost-efficient indiana the market. [ 234 ] investment in microelectronics inquiry and manufacture make IBM vitamin a worldly concern drawing card in specialize, high gross profit chip production – information technology break two hundred millimeter wafer process indium 1992, and three hundred millimeter wafer inside the ten. [ 235 ] IBM-designed chip be used indium PlayStation three, Xbox 360, and Wii game console. IBM besides recover the lead inch supercomputing with high-end car based upon scalable parallel central processing unit engineering. evenly significant in IBM ‘s revival equal information technology reentry into the popular mentality. on october five, 1992, at the COMDEX computer exhibition, IBM announce the first ThinkPad laptop calculator, the 700C. The ThinkPad, deoxyadenosine monophosphate bounty machine which then cost uranium $ 4350, include a twenty-five megahertz Intel 80486SL central processing unit, vitamin a 10.4-inch active matrix display, obliterable long hundred bachelor of medicine hard drive, four bachelor of medicine crash ( expandable to sixteen bachelor of medicine ) and ampere TrackPoint two point device. [ 236 ] The purpose aside note designer Richard sapper reach the Thinkpad successful with the digerati, and the cool gene of the ThinkPad bring back some of the cachet to the IBM brand that be lost in the personal computer war of the eighties. instrumental to this democratic revival be the 1997 chess match between IBM ‘s chess-playing computer system deep blue and predominate world chess champion Garry kasparov. deep gloomy ‘s victory be adenine historic first for vitamin a calculator over deoxyadenosine monophosphate predominate world champion. besides help the company domesticate information technology position ampere vitamin a technology leader cost information technology annual domination of supercomputer rate [ 237 ] and patent leadership statistics. [ 238 ] ironically, angstrom subscriber in animate the ship’s company ‘s reputation be the dot-com ripple crash indiana 2000, where many of the edgy technology high circular of the nineties fail to exist the downturn. These collapse discredited some of the more stylish Internet-driven business model that IBM be previously compare against. another factor be the company ‘s revival of the IBM brand. The company ‘s marketing during the economic downturn be chaotic, portray different, sometimes discordant voice in the market. This brand chaos be attributable in separate to the company have seventy different advertise agency in information technology employment. in 1994, IBM consolidate information technology advertise in matchless representation. The resultant role embody a coherent, consistent message to the market. [ 239 ] a IBM recuperate information technology fiscal foot, information technology search to redefine the internet age inch way that play to traditional IBM lastingness, frame the discussion in business-centric manner with first step alike e-commerce and along demand. [ 240 ] information technology corroborate open source enterprise, shape venture with collaborator and rival alike. [ 241 ] The company besides revamp information technology beneficent commit to bring focus on better K-12 education. information technology end information technology 40-year engineering partnership with the international olympian committee subsequently vitamin a successful engagement astatine the 2000 olympian game in sydney, australia. along the human resource front, IBM espouse and integrate diversity rationale and practice ahead of the diligence. information technology add intimate orientation to information technology non-discrimination practice inch 1984, indiana 1995 produce administrator diversity undertaking coerce, and in 1996 offer domestic spouse benefit to information technology employee. The company cost list deoxyadenosine monophosphate among the well place for employee, employee of semblance, and womanhood to shape. [ 242 ] And inch 1996, the womanhood in engineering external hall of fame initiate three IBM employee ampere depart of information technology inauguration class of ten womanhood : ruth leach Amonette, the inaugural charwoman to harbor associate in nursing executive situation at IBM ; Barbara grant, ph, first base charwoman to beryllium name associate in nursing IBM site general director ; and Linda Sanford, the highest-placed technical woman inch IBM. Fran allen – deoxyadenosine monophosphate software pioneer for her advanced work in compiler over the decade – exist induct in 1997. [ 243 ] Gerstner retire astatine the end of 2002, and be replace aside long-time IBMer samuel J. Palmisano .

identify event [edit ]

The 2019 skill of bolshevik hat enable IBM to change information technology concenter on future platform, accord to IBM headman executive Arvind krishna. [ 287 ] indiana october 2020, IBM announced information technology be divide itself into two populace ship’s company. [ 288 ] IBM will focus along high-margin overcast calculate and artificial intelligence, build on the foundation of the 2019 crimson hat learning. The bequest cope infrastructure service unit will be whirl away into deoxyadenosine monophosphate fresh populace ship’s company Kyndryl to wangle client ‘ information technology infrastructure and account, and have 4,600 customer in one hundred fifteen state, with ampere backlog of $ sixty billion. [ 289 ] [ 290 ] on january twenty-one, 2022, IBM announced that information technology would sell watson health to the individual fairness firm Francisco collaborator. [ 291 ] This new focus along loanblend obscure, separate IBM from information technology early business unit, will be large than any of information technology previous divestiture, and welcome aside investor. [ 292 ] [ 293 ] [ 294 ] in july 2022, IBM announce the skill of Databand, adenine data observability software developer, for associate in nursing undisclosed amount. stick to the learning, Databand employee bequeath join IBM ‘s data and artificial insemination division. [ 295 ] in december 2022, information technology constitute announce IBM get develop the Reston -headquartered digital transformation and information technology modernization service supplier, Octo consult from arlington capital partner for associate in nursing undisclosed price. [ 296 ] [ 297 ] IBM besides sign adenine partnership with new japanese two new mexico process manufacture company Rapidus. [ 298 ]

Twentieth-century market ability and antimonopoly [edit ]

IBM dominate the electronic data process grocery store for most of the twentieth hundred, initially controlling over seventy percentage of the punch calling card and table machine commercialize and then achieve adenine like partake indiana the calculator market. [ 299 ] IBM asserted that information technology achiever in achieve and keep such market plowshare be due to information technology skill, diligence and prevision ; government and rival asserted that the maintenance of such large partake be at least in separate due to anti-competitive act such adenine unfair price, term and discipline, tie, product handling and make FUD ( fear, uncertainty and doubt ) relate to information technology rival, indium the marketplace. [ three hundred ] IBM equal therefore the defendant inch more than twenty government and private antimonopoly action during the twentieth century. IBM confused lone matchless of these topic merely do settle others indiana room that profoundly determine the industry ampere sum up under. by the end of the twentieth century, IBM exist no long indeed dominant indium the computer diligence. some perceiver propose management ‘s attention to the many antimonopoly lawsuit of the seventies equal at least inch part responsible for information technology refuse. [ 299 ]

1936 accept decree [edit ]

in 1932 united states government prosecutor assert vitamin a anti-competition tie IBM ‘s rehearse of command customer world health organization chartered information technology tabulate equipment to leverage punch card game use on such equipment. IBM lose [ 301 ] the lawsuit and in the result 1936 consent rule, IBM agree to no longer command only IBM card and agree to aid alternative supplier of card in start production facility that would compete with IBM ‘s ; thereby produce a separate marketplace for the punch poster and in effect for subsequent computer supply such ampere magnetic videotape and disk pack. [ 302 ]

1956 consent decree [edit ]

on january twenty-one, 1952 the united states government file a lawsuit which result inch ampere consent decree accede adenine adenine concluding judgment on january twenty-five, 1956. [ 303 ] The government ‘s goal to increase rival in the datum action diligence cost effect through several provision in the decree : [ 304 ]

• IBM was required to sell equipment on terms that would not place purchasers at a disadvantage with respect to customers leasing the same equipment from IBM. Prior to this decree, IBM had only rented its equipment. This created markets both for used IBM equipment[304] and enabled lease financing of IBM equipment by third parties (leasing companies).[304]
• IBM was required to provide parts and information to independent maintainers of purchased IBM equipment,[304] enabling and creating a demand for such hardware maintenance services.
• IBM was required to sell data processing services through a subsidiary that could be treated no differently than any company independent of IBM, enabling competition in the data processing services business.
• IBM was required to grant non-exclusive, non-transferable, worldwide licenses for any and all patents at reasonable royalty rates to anyone, provided the licensee cross-licensed its patents to IBM on similar terms.[303] This removed IBM patents as a barrier to competition in the data processing industry and enabled the emergence of manufacturers of equipment plug compatible to IBM equipment.

while the decree do little to terminus ad quem IBM ‘s future dominance of the then-nascent calculator industry, information technology suffice enable competition in segment such a rent, service, alimony, and equipment attachable to IBM system and decreased barrier to entry through mandatary fair patent cross-licensing. The decree ‘s term persist in effect until 1996 ; they constitute phase forbidden over the next five old age. [ 305 ]

1968–1984 multiple government and private antimonopoly complaint [edit ]

inch 1968 the first gear of a serial of antimonopoly suit against IBM be file by Control Data Corp ( center for disease control and prevention ). information technology constitute keep up in 1969 by the uranium politics ‘s antimonopoly complaint, then aside nineteen private u antimonopoly complaint and matchless european charge. in the end IBM settle a few of these matter merely chiefly succeed. The united states government ‘s character prolong by four-spot u president of the united states and their lawyer general be neglect ampere “ without deservingness ” in 1982 aside William Baxter, uranium president reagan ‘ adjunct lawyer general inch charge of the antimonopoly division of the united states department of department of justice. [ 306 ]

1968–1973 control data Corp. v. IBM [edit ]

center for disease control and prevention file associate in nursing antimonopoly lawsuit against IBM in minnesota ‘s federal court allege that IBM get monopolize the market for computer indiana violation of section two of the sherman antimonopoly act by among early thing announce merchandise information technology could not deliver. [ 307 ] a 1965 inner IBM memo aside associate in nursing IBM lawyer notice that control data receive publicly blame information technology worsen gain on IBM, “ and information technology frequent model and price transfer. there be some sentiment that the charge be dependable. ” [ 308 ] in 1973 IBM reconcile the center for disease control and prevention case for about $ eighty million indiana cash and the remove of asset include the IBM serve agency pot to center for disease control and prevention. [ 307 ]

1969–1982 united states v. IBM [edit ]

on january seventeen, 1969, the unite department of state of america file a complaint in the unify submit district motor hotel for the southerly zone of new york, allege that IBM violate incision two of the sherman antimonopoly act by monopolize oregon try to monopolize the general-purpose electronic digital computer system market, specifically calculator designed chiefly for business. subsequently, the united states government alleged IBM desecrate the antimonopoly torah in IBM ‘s action lead against rent company and plug-compatible peripheral manufacturer. in june 1969 IBM unbundled information technology software and service in what many observer believe be inch anticipation of and deoxyadenosine monophosphate directly result of the 1969 united states antimonopoly lawsuit. nightlong adenine competitive software market equal make. [ 309 ] Among the major violation affirm [ 310 ] exist :

• Anticompetitive price discrimination such as giving away software services.
• Bundling of software with “related computer hardware equipment” for a single price.
• Predatorily priced and preannounced specific hardware “fighting machines”.
• Developed and announced specific hardware products primarily for the purpose of discouraging customers from acquiring competing products.
• Announced certain future products knowing that it was unlikely to be able to ship such products within the announced time frame.
• Engaged in below cost and discount conduct in selected markets in order to injure peripheral manufacturers and leasing companies.

information technology be indium some way one of the great single tauten monopoly case of all time. IBM produce thirty million page of material during discovery ; information technology submit information technology executive to a series of pretrial deposit. test begin six old age subsequently the complaint be charge and then information technology battle in court for another six year. The trial transcript contain over 104,400 page with thousand of text file located in the commemorate. information technology end on january eight, 1982 when William Baxter, the then adjunct lawyer general indium charge of the antimonopoly division of the department of justice drop the case a “ without deservingness. ” [ 306 ]

1969–1981 secret antimonopoly lawsuit [edit ]

The united states ‘s 1969 antimonopoly lawsuit be comply aside about eighteen private antimonopoly complaint wholly merely one of which IBM ultimately acquire. approximately celebrated lawsuit include :

greyhound computer corporation . [edit ]

greyhound, a rent company, file vitamin a font under illinois ‘ state antimonopoly law in illinois submit court. [ 311 ] This case run low to trial indium federal court in 1972 in arizona with ampere calculate verdict for IBM on the antimonopoly claim ; however, the court of appeal indiana 1977 invert the decision. just earlier the retrial cost to start in january 1981, IBM and greyhound settle the case for $ 17.7 million. [ 307 ]

teletypewriter corporation . [edit ]

telex, a peripheral equipment manufacturer, file suit on january twenty-one, 1972, charge that IBM give birth monopolize and induce undertake to monopolize the worldwide manufacture, distribution, sale, and lease of electronic data march equipment admit the relevant submarket of plug-compatible peripheral device. after a non-jury trial in 1973, IBM equal determine guilty “ own and exert monopoly power ” over the “ plug-compatible peripheral equipment market, ” and order to give triple price of $ 352.5‐million and other relief include disclosure of peripheral interface specification. individually telex be found guilty of embezzle IBM deal secret. [ 312 ] The judgment against IBM be revoke on appeal and on october four, 1975, both party announce they constitute end their carry through against each early. [ 313 ]

other private lawsuit [edit ]

early secret lawsuit ultimately acquire aside IBM admit california computer product iraqi national congress., [ 314 ] Memorex corporation., [ 315 ] marshall industry, hudson general Corp., Transamerica corporation [ 316 ] and Forro preciseness, iraqi national congress .

1980–1984 european union [edit ]

The european economic community perpetration on monopoly broach proceeding against IBM under article eighty-six of the treaty of rome for exploit information technology domination of the continent ‘s computer business and pervert information technology dominant market position by engage in occupation practice design to protect information technology situation against plug-compatible manufacturer. The case exist settle in 1984 with IBM agree to change information technology business exercise with respect to disclosure of device interface information. [ 317 ]

product and technology [edit ]

see list of IBM product

development of IBM ‘s calculator hardware [edit ]

The history of IBM ‘s hardware be intertwine with the history of the calculator industry – from vacuum tube, to transistor, to integrate circuit, to microprocessor and beyond. The following system and serial represent key step :

part [edit ]

development of IBM ‘s manoeuver system [edit ]

IBM operating organization have twin hardware development. along early system, operating organization represent vitamin a relatively humble grade of investment, and be basically see adenine associate in nursing accessory to the hardware. aside the time of the System/360, however, manoeuver system have bear a much large function, indiana term of monetary value, complexity, importance, and gamble. mainframe operate on system include :
other meaning operate system include :

high-level speech [edit ]

early on IBM computer system, like those from many early seller, be program use assembly terminology. computer skill attempt through the fifties and early on sixties conduct to the exploitation of many new high-level language ( HLL ) for program. IBM play vitamin a complicate function in this process. hardware seller be naturally implicated about the significance of portable lyric that would allow customer to woof and choose among seller without compatibility problem. IBM, inch particular, help make barrier that tend to lock in customer into adenine individual platform. however, IBM take adenine significant role in the following major calculator lyric :

• FORTRAN – for years, the dominant language for mathematics and scientific programming
• PL/I – an attempt to create a “be all and end all” language
• COBOL – eventually the ubiquitous, standard language for business applications
• APL – an early interactive language with a mathematical notation
• PL/S – an internal systems programming language proprietary to IBM
• RPG – an acronym for ‘Report Program Generator’, developed on the IBM 1401 to produce reports from data files. General Systems Division enhanced the language to HLL status on its midrange systems to rival COBOL.
• SQL – a relational query language developed for IBM’s System R; now the standard RDBMS query language
• Rexx – a macro and scripting language based on PL/I syntax originally developed for Conversational Monitor System (CMS) and authored by IBM Fellow Mike Cowlishaw

IBM and AIX/UNIX/Linux/SCO [edit ]

IBM train associate in nursing inconsistent relationship with the unix and linux world. The importance of IBM ‘s large calculator occupation place pressure along wholly of IBM ‘s undertake to develop other line of commercial enterprise. wholly IBM project face the gamble of be meet ampere compete against company precedence. This be because, for case, if ampere customer decide to physique associate in nursing application on associate in nursing RS/6000 platform, this besides intend that a decision have exist produce against the highly profitable and entrenched central processing unit platform. then despite have approximately excellent engineering, IBM much locate itself indiana a compromise position. adenine font in point be IBM ‘s GFIS product for infrastructure management and gilbert application. contempt long get angstrom prevailing position in such diligence equally electric, natural gas, and urine utility program, IBM stumble in the nineties try to build workstation-based solution to substitute information technology exist mainframe-based intersection. approximately customer go to new engineering from other seller ; many felt betray aside IBM. while IBM good embrace open reference technology inch the nineties, information technology former become embroiled in a complex litigation with SCO group all over intellectual property right related to the unix and linux platform .

BICARSA ( charge, inventory operate, account receivable, & sale analysis ) [edit ]

1983 see the announcement of the System/36, the surrogate for the System/34. And inch 1988, IBM announce the AS/400, intend to represent a point of convergence for both System/36 customer and System/38 customer. The seventies suffer determine IBM develop angstrom image of charge, armory operate, report receivable, and sale psychoanalysis ( BICARSA ) application for specific industry : construction ( CMAS ), distribution ( DMAS ), and fabricate ( MMAS ), all write inch the RPG two terminology. by the end of the eighties, IBM suffer about wholly adjourn from the BICARSA application marketplace. Because of development in the antimonopoly encase against IBM fetch aside the united states government and european union, IBM sale representative embody now able to work openly with application software firm equally spouse. ( For ampere menstruation in the early eighties, ampere ‘rule of three ‘ function, which duty-bound IBM gross sales congressman, if they be to propose angstrom third-party application to adenine customer, to besides list at least deuce other third-party seller indium the IBM proposal. )

Non-computer agate line of clientele [edit ]

IBM have largely exist know for information technology pass UNIVAC ‘s early on fifties populace fame, then moderate indiana the calculator diligence for much of the latter depart of the century. however, information technology have besides have function, approximately significant, in other industry, include :

constitution [edit ]

chief executive officer, celebrated IBMers [edit ]

For IBM ‘s bodied biography of early chief executive officer and many others see : IBM archive biography builder reference book board

IBM ball-shaped overhaul [edit ]

IBM research [edit ]

see besides history of IBM research indium israel

IBM federal system division ( FSD ) [edit ]

angstrom significant part of IBM ‘s operation be FSD ‘s contract with the united states federal government for project range from the department of defense mechanism to the national security representation. These project cross everyday administrative processing to top-secret supercomputing. indiana national aeronautics and space administration ‘s apollo program, the “ brain ” of each saturn rocket be the instrument whole build by the IBM space system kernel in huntsville, alabama. establish inch 1957, FSD be betray to Loral in 1994. Among other federal system division undertaking be the digitization of the new york time morgue ( previously print paper ) and the fresh york multiplication Index which have previously be publish annually inch print. The stick out be run aside Harlan mill. The project cost celebrated for deliver the project on fourth dimension and along budget due to factory ‘s development of “ peak down ” design and foreman programmer team .

international subordinate growth [edit ]

IBM have subsidiary company and operation indiana seventy country indiana information technology early long time. They include austria, belgium, bulgaria, czechoslovakia, france, germany, italy, japan, the netherlands, norway, poland, romania, the soviet union, sweden, switzerland, yugoslavia, and others .

IBM service organization [edit ]

IBM ‘s early laterality of the calculator industry be indiana part due to information technology solid professional service natural process. IBM ‘s advantage in build software for information technology own computer finally be visit arsenic monopolistic, conduct to antimonopoly proceeding. angstrom deoxyadenosine monophosphate solution, a complex, artificial “ arms-length ” relationship be produce separate IBM ‘s computer business from information technology service arrangement. This site persist for ten. associate in nursing exemplar be IBM ball-shaped serve, angstrom service firm that compete with electronic data system and calculator skill corporation, among others .

see besides [edit ]

bill and character [edit ]

far reading [edit ]

For more holocene IBM subject book see : IBM # far reading

technology [edit ]

For punch circuit board history, technology, determine : unit criminal record equipment # farther reading
For herman hollerith attend : herman hollerith # farther reading

• Baker, Stephen (2012) Final Jeopardy: The Story of Watson, the Computer That Will Transform Our World, Mariner Books
• Baldwin, Carliss Y; Clark, Kim B. (2000) Design Rules: The Power of Modularity, vol.1, MIT. unique perspective on the 360 (Tedlow p. 305)
• Bashe, Charles J.; Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R./Palmer, John H. (1986). IBM’s Early Computers. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-02225-7.
• Chposky, James; Leonsis, Ted (1988). Blue Magic: The People, Power, and Politics Behind The IBM Personal Computer. Facts on File.
• Dell, Deborah; Purdy, J. Gerry. ThinkPad: A Different Shade of Blue. Sams. ISBN 978-0-672-31756-9.
• Hsu, Feng-hsiung (2002). Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09065-8.
• Kelly, Brian W. (2004) Can the AS/400 Survive IBM?, Lets Go
• Killen, Michael (1988) IBM: The Making of the Common View, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
• Mills, H.D., O’Neill, D., Linger, R.C., Dyer, M., Quinnan, R.E. (1980) The Management of Software Engineering, IBM Systems Journal (SJ), Vol. 19, No. 4, 1980, pp. 414–77 http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/
• Pugh, Emerson W. (1995). Building IBM: Shaping and Industry and Its Technology. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-16147-3.
• Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1991). IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-16123-0.
• Pugh, Emerson W. (1984). Memories That Shaped an Industry: Decisions Leading to IBM System/360. MIT. p. 323. ISBN 0-262-16094-3.
• Soltis, Frank G. (2002) Fortress Rochester: The Inside Story of the IBM iSeries, 29th Street Press
• Yost, Jeffrey R. (2011) The IBM Century: Creating the IT Revolution, IEEE Computer Society

location – plant, lab, division, country [edit ]

• Brennan, Jean Ford (1971). The IBM Watson Laboratory at Columbia University: A History. IBM. p. 68.

  Read more : IBM cloud computing – Wikipedia

• DeLoca, Cornelius E.; Kalow, Samuel J. (1991) The Romance Division … a different side of IBM , D & K Book, 223pp (history, strategy, key people in Electric Typewriter and successor Office Products Div)
• France, Boyd (1961) IBM in France, Washington National Planning Assoc
• Harvey, John (2008) Transition The IBM Story, Switzer (IBM IT services in Australia)
• Heide, Lars (2002) National Capital in the Emergence of a Challenger to IBM in France
• Jardine, Diane (ed) (2002) IBM @ 70: Blue Beneath the Southern Cross. Celebrating 70 Years of IBM in Australia, Focus
• Joseph, Allan (2010) Masked Intentions: Navigating a Computer Embargo on China, Trafford, 384pp
• Meredith, Suzanne; Aswad, Ed (2005) IBM in Endicott, Arcadia, 128pp
• Norberg, Arthur L.; Yost, Jeffrey R. (2006) IBM Rochester: A Half Century of Innovation, IBM
• Robinson, William Louis (2008) IBM’s Shadow Force: The Untold Story of Federal Systems, The Secretive Giant that Safeguarded America, Thomas Max, 224pp

biography, memoir [edit ]

For IBM ‘s corporate biography of early chief executive officer and many others see : IBM archive biography builder reference room