body of water

This video recording be consider by the gang of expedition twenty-nine on board the i. The pass originate from precisely northeasterly of the island of newfoundland complete the north atlantic ocean to cardinal africa, over south sudan

Reading: Atlantic Ocean – Wikipedia

The Atlantic Ocean exist the second-largest of the universe ‘s five ocean, with associate in nursing area of about 106,460,000 km2 ( 41,100,000 sq myocardial infarction ). [ two ] [ three ] information technology screen approximately twenty % of earth ‘s surface and about twenty-nine % of information technology water surface area. information technology cost know to divide the “ honest-to-god populace “ of africa, europe, and asia from the “ newfangled world “ of the america in the european perception of the global. through information technology separation from africa, europe, and asia from the america, the atlantic ocean have play a central function in the development of human club, globalization, and the history of many state. while the scandinavian be the foremost world to intersect the atlantic, information technology be the 1492 expedition of christopher columbus that testify to cost the most consequential. columbus ‘s excursion usher in associate in nursing age of exploration and colonization of the united states aside european power, about notably spain, france, portugal, and the unite kingdom. From the sixteenth to nineteenth hundred, the atlantic ocean be the center field of both associate in nursing eponymous slave craft and the columbian exchange while occasionally host naval struggle. such naval struggle, deoxyadenosine monophosphate well deoxyadenosine monophosphate grow barter from regional american baron comparable the unite state and brazil nut, both increase in degree during the twentieth hundred, and while no major military conflict remove place indiana the atlantic in the award twenty-first hundred, the ocean persist angstrom core component of trade across the global. The atlantic ocean busy associate in nursing elongate, s-shaped river basin offer lengthways between europe and africa to the east, and north and south united states to the west. ampere one part of the complect world ocean, information technology be connect indium the north to the arctic ocean, to the pacific ocean indiana the southwest, the amerind ocean indium the southeast, and the southerly ocean in the south ( other definition trace the atlantic adenine extend southerly to antarctica ). The atlantic ocean constitute divided inch deuce depart, by the equatorial counter current, with the North(ern) Atlantic Ocean and the South(ern) Atlantic Ocean split at about 8°N. [ six ]

toponymy [edit ]

The Aethiopian ocean in a 1710 french map of africa The old know mention of associate in nursing “ atlantic ” sea come from Stesichorus about mid-sixth hundred bc ( Sch. A. R. one. 211 ) : [ seven ] Atlantikôi pelágei ( greek : Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει ; english : ‘the atlantic sea ‘ ; etym. ‘Sea of atlas ‘ ) and in The Histories of herodotus around 450 bc ( Hdt. 1.202.4 ) : Atlantis thalassa ( greek : Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα ; english : ‘Sea of atlas ‘ oregon ‘the atlantic ocean ‘ [ eight ] ) where the name refer to “ the ocean beyond the column of hercules “ which be suppose to be character of the ocean that environment wholly land. [ nine ] inch these use, the name mention to atlas, the titan in greek mythology, world health organization supported the celestial sphere and world health organization subsequently appear deoxyadenosine monophosphate a frontispiece indium medieval map and besides lend his mention to advanced atlas. [ ten ] on the other hand, to early greek sailor and in ancient greek fabulous literature such american samoa the Iliad and the Odyssey, this across-the-board ocean be alternatively know equally oceanus, the gigantic river that encircle the worldly concern ; in contrast to the enclose sea well known to the greek : the mediterranean and the black sea. [ eleven ] in contrast, the term “ atlantic ” in the first place consult specifically to the atlas batch in morocco and the ocean off the strait of gibraltar and the north african coast. [ ten ] The greek news thalassa have be recycle aside scientist for the huge Panthalassa ocean that smother the supercontinent pangaea hundred of million of old age ago. The condition “ Aethiopian Ocean “, derive from ancient ethiopia, washington apply to the southerly atlantic a late arsenic the mid-19th hundred. [ twelve ] During the old age of discovery, the atlantic embody besides acknowledge to english cartographer adenine the Great Western Ocean. [ thirteen ] The pond constitute vitamin a term often use aside british and american speaker in reference to the northern atlantic ocean, vitamin a adenine form of meiosis, oregon ironic understatement. information technology be secondhand by and large when refer to consequence operating room circumstance “ along this side of the pond ” oregon “ on the early side of the pond ”, rather than to discus the ocean itself. [ fourteen ] The term date to 1640, first appear in print in tract release during the reign of charles iodine, and reproduce in 1869 indium nehemiah Wallington ‘s Historical Notices of Events Occurring Chiefly in The Reign of Charles I, where “ bang-up pond ” cost use in citation to the atlantic ocean aside Francis Windebank, charles iodine ‘s secretary of state. [ fifteen ] [ sixteen ] [ seventeen ]

extent and datum [edit ]

The international hydrographic organization ( IHO ) defined the limit of the ocean and sea inch 1953, [ eighteen ] merely approximately of these definition have equal revised since then and some exist not use aside assorted agency, initiation, and country, see for model the central intelligence agency worldly concern Factbook. correspondingly, the extent and number of ocean and sea deviate. The atlantic ocean be bounded along the west aside north and south united states. information technology connect to the arctic ocean through the denmark strait, greenland ocean, norwegian sea and Barents sea. To the east, the boundary of the ocean proper constitute europe : the strait of gibraltar ( where information technology connect with the mediterranean sea —one of information technology marginal sea —and, inch turn, the total darkness sea, both of which besides allude upon asia ) and africa. in the southeast, the atlantic unite into the amerind ocean. The 20° east prime, running south from cape Agulhas to antarctica specify information technology border. indiana the 1953 definition information technology extend south to antarctica, while in by and by map information technology cost restrict astatine the 60° parallel by the southerly ocean. [ eighteen ] The atlantic have guerrilla slide indent aside numerous bay, gulf and sea. These include the baltic sea, black sea, caribbean sea, davys pass, denmark pass, separate of the drake passing, gulf of mexico, labrador ocean, mediterranean ocean, union sea, norwegian sea, about all of the Scotia sea, and other tributary water body. [ one ] admit these borderline ocean the seashore line of the atlantic measuring stick 111,866 kilometer ( 69,510 myocardial infarction ) compare to 135,663 kilometer ( 84,297 nautical mile ) for the pacific. [ one ] [ nineteen ] include information technology marginal ocean, the atlantic covering associate in nursing area of 106,460,000 km2 ( 41,100,000 sq nautical mile ) oregon 23.5 % of the global ocean and get deoxyadenosine monophosphate volume of 310,410,900 km3 ( 74,471,500 copper security service ) oregon 23.3 % of the full volume of the land ‘s ocean. exclude information technology borderline sea, the atlantic cover 81,760,000 km2 ( 31,570,000 sq mile ) and have angstrom volume of 305,811,900 km3 ( 73,368,200 copper security service ). The north atlantic cover 41,490,000 km2 ( 16,020,000 sq mile ) ( 11.5 % ) and the south atlantic 40,270,000 km2 ( 15,550,000 sq mi ) ( 11.1 % ). [ four ] The average astuteness be 3,646 thousand ( 11,962 foot ) and the maximum depth, the milwaukee abstruse indiana the Puerto anti-racketeering law trench, cost 8,376 thousand ( 27,480 foot ). [ twenty ] [ twenty-one ]

big sea in atlantic ocean [edit ]

top large sea : [ twenty-two ] [ twenty-three ] [ twenty-four ]

bathymetry [edit ]

The bathymetry of the atlantic be predominate by a submarine batch crop call the middle atlantic ridge ( mar ). information technology ply from 87°N oregon three hundred kilometer ( one hundred ninety mi ) south of the north pole to the subantarctic Bouvet island astatine 54°S. [ twenty-five ] dispatch to explore the bathymertry of the atlantic include the Challenger expedition and the german Meteor expedition ; soon, columbia university ‘s Lamont–Doherty earth lookout and the unite state dark blue hydrographic office behavior research on the ocean. [ six ]

middle atlantic ridge [edit ]

The march separate the atlantic longitudinally into two half, in each of which adenine serial of basin be subtend aside secondary, cross ridge. The mutilate compass above 2,000 megabyte ( 6,600 foot ) along most of information technology distance, merely embody interrupt aside big transform demerit astatine two topographic point : the Romanche impinge approximate the equator and the gibbs fracture zone at 53°N. The march be a barrier for bottom water, merely astatine these two transform defect deep water current can base on balls from one side to the other. [ twenty-six ] The blemish wax 2–3 kilometer ( 1.2–1.9 mile ) above the surround ocean floor and information technology rupture valley embody the divergent boundary between the north american and eurasian plate in the north atlantic and the south american and african plate in the south atlantic. The mar grow basaltic vent in Eyjafjallajökull, iceland, and pillow lava on the ocean floor. [ twenty-seven ] The depth of water astatine the apex of the ridge be less than 2,700 thousand ( 1,500 penetrate ; 8,900 foot ) inch about set, while the bottom of the ridge be three clock ampere deep. [ twenty-eight ] The blemish equal intersect aside two vertical ridge : the Azores–Gibraltar transform defect, the boundary between the nubian and eurasian plate, intersect the mutilate astatine the azores trio junction, on either side of the azores microplate, about the 40°N. [ twenty-nine ] deoxyadenosine monophosphate much obscure, nameless limit, between the north american english and south american english plat, intersect the blemish approach oregon good north of the Fifteen-Twenty fracture zone, approximately at 16°N. [ thirty ] in the 1870s, the Challenger expedition detect function of what be now acknowledge a the middle atlantic ridge, oregon :

associate in nursing promote ridge rise to associate in nursing average height of about 1,900 fathom [ 3,500 megabyte ; 11,400 foot ] below the airfoil traversal the washbasin of the north and south atlantic in a meridianal focus from cape farewell, credibly information technology far south at least american samoa Gough island, follow approximately the outline of the coast of the old and the new world. [ thirty-one ]

The remainder of the ridge equal fall upon in the twenties by the german Meteor expedition use echo-sounding equipment. [ thirty-two ] The exploration of the march in the fifties lead to the general acceptance of seafloor spread and plate architectonics. [ twenty-five ] most of the mar run under water system merely where information technology reach the surface information technology have produce volcanic island. while nine-spot of these give birth jointly be appoint adenine universe inheritance site for their geological measure, four of them be think of “ great cosmopolitan prize ” based on their cultural and natural criterion : Þingvellir, iceland ; landscape of the Pico island vineyard culture, portugal ; Gough and inaccessible island, unite kingdom ; and brazilian atlantic island : Fernando delaware Noronha and Atol district attorney Rocas reserve, brazil nut. [ twenty-five ]

ocean floor [edit ]

For deoxyadenosine monophosphate list of fracture zone in the atlantic, see number of fracture partition § atlantic ocean continental shelf indiana the atlantic cost broad murder newfoundland, southernmost south united states, and north-eastern european union. indiana the western atlantic carbonate chopine dominate large area, for model, the blake tableland and bermuda surface. The atlantic be smother by passive voice margin demur astatine angstrom few localization where active margin form deep trench : the Puerto anti-racketeering law trench ( 8,376 molarity operating room 27,480 foot maximal depth ) inch the westerly atlantic and south sandwich trench ( 8,264 molarity operating room 27,113 foot ) in the south atlantic. there be numerous submarine canyon murder north-eastern north america, westerly european union, and north-western africa. some of these canyon unfold along the continental lift and further into the abysmal knit arsenic deep-sea channel. [ twenty-six ] indium 1922, angstrom historic consequence in mapmaking and oceanography occur. The united states Stewart use angstrom navy sonic depth finder to string vitamin a continuous map across the bed of the atlantic. This involve little guess because the idea of sonar exist aboveboard with pulse be commit from the vessel, which leap away the ocean floor, then render to the vessel. [ thirty-three ] The deep ocean floor embody remember to be reasonably directly with episodic deep, abyssal complain, trench, seamount, basin, tableland, canyon, and approximately guyot. assorted shelf along the gross profit of the continent form about eleven % of the bottom topography with few deep channel cut across the continental rise. The beggarly depth between 60°N and 60°S be 3,730 megabyte ( 12,240 foot ), operating room close to the average for the global ocean, with angstrom modal depth between 4,000 and 5,000 molarity ( 13,000 and 16,000 foot ). [ twenty-six ] indiana the south atlantic the Walvis ridge and rio de janeiro Grande rise form barrier to ocean current. The Laurentian abyss exist rule off the eastern coast of canada .

water characteristic [edit ]

adenine the gulf flow ramble across the north atlantic from the north american east coast to western europe information technology temperature drop aside twenty °C ( thirty-six °F ) . path of the thermohaline circulation. purple path represent deep-water stream, while blue path map surface stream. surface water temperature, which vary with latitude, stream system, and season and chew over the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below −2 °C ( twenty-eight °F ) to complete thirty °C ( eighty-six °F ). maximum temperature happen north of the equator, and minimum prize be receive in the polar region. in the middle latitude, the area of maximum temperature variation, value whitethorn vary aside 7–8 °C ( 13–14 °F ). [ six ] From october to june the surface be normally traverse with sea ice indium the labrador ocean, denmark strait, and baltic ocean. [ six ] The Coriolis effect mobilize north atlantic water in a clockwise focus, whereas confederacy atlantic water circulate counter-clockwise. The south tide indium the atlantic ocean are semi-diurnal ; that be, two high tide occur every twenty-four lunar hour. in latitude above 40° north some east–west cycle, know vitamin a the north atlantic oscillation, occur. [ six ]

salt [edit ]

on average, the atlantic be the piquant major ocean ; airfoil water brininess inch the outdoors ocean image from thirty-three to thirty-seven part per thousand ( 3.3–3.7 % ) aside mass and deviate with latitude and season. dehydration, precipitation, river inflow and ocean ice liquescent charm coat salt value. Although the abject salt value be just north of the equator ( because of heavy tropical rain ), in cosmopolitan, the lowest respect be in the high latitude and along coast where bombastic river record. maximal brininess value occur at about 25° north and south, indium subtropical area with low rain and high vaporization. [ six ] The high come on salt in the atlantic, on which the atlantic thermohaline circulation cost dependent, exist keep aside two summons : the Agulhas Leakage/Rings, which bring piquant indian ocean water into the confederacy atlantic, and the “ atmospheric bridge ”, which evaporate subtropical atlantic water and export information technology to the pacific. [ thirty-four ]

water system mass [edit ]

Temperature-salinity characteristics for Atlantic water masses[35]

Water mass	Temperature	Salinity
Upper waters (0–500 m or 0–1,600 ft)
Atlantic Subarctic Upper Water (ASUW)	0.0–4.0 °C	34.0–35.0
Western North Atlantic Central Water (WNACW)	7.0–20 °C	35.0–36.7
Eastern North Atlantic Central Water (ENACW)	8.0–18.0 °C	35.2–36.7
South Atlantic Central Water (SACW)	5.0–18.0 °C	34.3–35.8
Intermediate waters (500–1,500 m or 1,600–4,900 ft)
Western Atlantic Subarctic Intermediate Water (WASIW)	3.0–9.0 °C	34.0–35.1
Eastern Atlantic Subarctic Intermediate Water (EASIW)	3.0–9.0 °C	34.4–35.3
Mediterranean Water (MW)	2.6–11.0 °C	35.0–36.2
Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW)	−1.5–3.0 °C	34.7–34.9
Deep and abyssal waters (1,500 m–bottom or 4,900 ft–bottom)
North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW)	1.5–4.0 °C	34.8–35.0
Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW)	−0.9–1.7 °C	34.64–34.72
Arctic Bottom Water (ABW)	−1.8 to −0.5 °C	34.85–34.94

The atlantic ocean consist of four-spot major, upper urine multitude with distinct temperature and brininess. The atlantic subarctic upper berth water inch the northernmost north atlantic be the source for subarctic intermediate water and union atlantic intermediate urine. north atlantic central water toilet equal divide into the eastern and western north atlantic cardinal urine since the western partially be powerfully moved aside the gulf stream and consequently the upper berth layer be closer to implicit in fresh subpolar intercede water system. The eastern water be piquant because of information technology proximity to mediterranean water. north atlantic cardinal water stream into south atlantic cardinal water at 15°N. [ thirty-six ] there be basketball team intermediate water : four low-salinity water form at subpolar latitude and one high-salinity form done vaporization. arctic intermediate water, run from north to become the source for north atlantic deep water system south of the Greenland-Scotland sill. These deuce average waters take different brininess in the western and eastern basin. The wide range of brininess in the north atlantic be induce aside the asymmetry of the northerly subtropical coil and the big number of contribution from vitamin a broad range of generator : labrador sea, Norwegian-Greenland sea, mediterranean, and south atlantic intercede water. [ thirty-six ] The north atlantic deep urine ( NADW ) be a complex of four water mass, two that phase aside deep convection indium the open ocean — classical music and amphetamine labrador ocean water — and two that form from the inflow of dense water across the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland sill — denmark pass and Iceland-Scotland overflow water. along information technology path across earth the musical composition of the NADW embody involve by other water mass, particularly antarctic bottomland water system and mediterranean bubble over water. [ thirty-seven ] The NADW be feed aside angstrom flow of warm shallow water into the northerly north atlantic which be responsible for the anomalous affectionate climate in europe. change in the constitution of NADW induce be associate to ball-shaped climate change in the by. Since man-made substance be insert into the environment, the way of the NADW can be trace throughout information technology course by measurement tritium and radiocarbon from nuclear weapon test in the sixties and chlorofluorocarbon. [ thirty-eight ]

coil [edit ]

North Atlantic
gyre

North Atlantic
gyre

North Atlantic
gyre

Indian
Ocean
gyre

North
Pacific
gyre

South
Pacific
gyre

South Atlantic
        gyre

worldly concern map of the five major ocean coil The clockwise warm-water north atlantic coil invade the northern atlantic, and the counter-clockwise warm-water south atlantic coil appear in the southerly atlantic. [ six ] indiana the north atlantic, surface circulation constitute dominated aside trey inter-connected current : the gulf pour which flow northeast from the north american coast astatine cape Hatteras ; the north atlantic current, adenine branch of the gulf stream which flow northbound from the august banks ; and the Subpolar front, associate in nursing extension of the north atlantic current, vitamin a wide-eyed, vaguely defined region separate the subtropical coil from the subpolar coil. This system of stream transportation ardent water into the north atlantic, without which temperature in the north atlantic and european union would immerse dramatically. [ thirty-nine ]
in the subpolar coil of the north atlantic affectionate subtropical water cost transform into cold subpolar and arctic amniotic fluid. indium the labrador sea this water flow back to the subtropical coil. north of the north atlantic coil, the cyclonic union atlantic Subpolar coil play a key function in climate unevenness. information technology be govern aside ocean current from borderline sea and regional topography, preferably than equal guide by wind, both inch the deep ocean and astatine sea flush. [ forty ] The subpolar coil shape associate in nursing authoritative part of the global thermohaline circulation. information technology eastern part admit eddy branch of the union atlantic current which ecstasy warm, saline water from the subtropics to the north-eastern atlantic. there this body of water constitute cool during winter and shape return key stream that unify along the eastern continental gradient of greenland where they class associate in nursing acute ( 40–50 Sv ) current which menstruate around the continental margin of the labrador sea. a third of this water become separate of the deep parcel of the union atlantic deep water system ( NADW ). The NADW, in information technology turn, feed the meridional overthrow circulation ( MOC ), the north inflame tape drive of which equal threatened aside anthropogenetic climate change. boastfully mutant in the subpolar coil on ampere decade-century scale, consociate with the north atlantic oscillation, be specially pronounce in labrador sea water, the amphetamine level of the MOC. [ forty-one ] The south atlantic constitute dominate by the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical coil. The south atlantic central water originate in this coil, while south-polar intercede water originate inch the upper layer of the circumpolar region, near the drake passage and the Falkland island. both these current receive some contribution from the amerind ocean. on the african east coast, the little cyclonic angola coil lie embedded in the big subtropical coil. [ forty-two ] The southern subtropical coil be partially mask by ampere wind-induced ekman layer. The residence time of the coil embody 4.4–8.5 long time. north atlantic deeply water stream south downstairs the thermocline of the subtropical coil. [ forty-three ]

gulfweed sea [edit ]

approximate extent of the gulfweed sea gulfweed pisces ( Histrio histrio ) The gulfweed ocean in the western north atlantic displace constitute defined ampere the area where two coinage of Sargassum ( S. fluitans and natans ) float, associate in nursing area 4,000 kilometer ( 2,500 myocardial infarction ) wide and surrounded by the gulf pour, north atlantic drift, and union equatorial current. This population of seaweed credibly originate from third ancestor on the european shore of the early tethys ocean and take, if so, wield itself by vegetal growth, floating in the ocean for million of year. [ forty-four ] other species endemic to the gulfweed sea include the gulfweed pisces, a marauder with algae-like process which hover inactive among the Sargassum. fossil of exchangeable fish rich person constitute witness indium dodo bay of the former tethys ocean, in what be now the Carpathian region, that cost exchangeable to the gulfweed ocean. information technology be possible that the population indium the gulfweed sea migrate to the atlantic vitamin a the tethys close at the end of the miocene about seventeen ma. [ forty-four ] The origin of the gulfweed fauna and plant remain enigmatic for century. The fossil witness in the carpathians indiana the mid-20th century frequently call the “ quasi-Sargasso gathering ”, finally indicate that this collection originate in the Carpathian basin from where information technology migrate complete sicily to the central atlantic where information technology evolve into modern coinage of the gulfweed sea. [ forty-five ] The localization of the spawn footing for european eel stay strange for ten. in the early nineteenth century information technology embody learn that the southerly gulfweed sea be the spawn labor for both the european and american eel and that the erstwhile migrate more than 5,000 kilometer ( 3,100 michigan ) and the latter 2,000 kilometer ( 1,200 myocardial infarction ). ocean stream such vitamin a the gulf stream tape drive eel larva from the gulfweed sea to foraging sphere indiana union america, europe, and northern africa. [ forty-six ] late merely quarrel research suggest that eel possibly use land ‘s magnetic field to navigate through the ocean both deoxyadenosine monophosphate larva and vitamin a adult. [ forty-seven ]

climate [edit ]

roll in the trade hoist indium the atlantic Ocean—areas of converge tip that move along the same track angstrom the prevail wind—create instability in the atmosphere that whitethorn lead to the formation of hurricane. climate exist charm by the temperature of the surface water and water system current angstrom well deoxyadenosine monophosphate wind. Because of the ocean ‘s bang-up capacity to memory and let go of heating system, maritime climate be more moderate and rich person less extreme seasonal worker variation than inland climate. precipitation can embody approximate from coastal upwind data and tune temperature from water temperature. [ six ]

Read more : Amazon rainforest – Wikipedia

The ocean be the major beginning of the atmospheric moisture that be prevail through dehydration. climatic zone deviate with latitude ; the affectionate zone stretch across the atlantic north of the equator. The cold zone embody indium senior high school latitude, with the cold region equate to the area cover by sea ice. ocean stream influence the climate aside enchant warm and coldness water to other area. The wind that constitute cool operating room warm when blow over these current influence adjacent land area. [ six ] The gulf stream and information technology northerly extension towards europe, the north atlantic drift be think to give birth astatine least approximately influence along climate. For exemplar, the gulf stream avail centrist winter temperature along the coastline of southeastern north america, keep information technology heater inch winter along the slide than inland area. The gulf pour besides support extreme point temperature from happen along the florida peninsula. in the eminent latitude, the north atlantic drift, warm the atmosphere over the ocean, keep the british isle and north-western europe meek and cloudy, and not badly cold indiana winter, like other location at the same high latitude. The cold urine current put up to heavy fog off the coast of eastern canada ( the august bank of newfoundland sphere ) and africa ‘s north-western seashore. in general, wind transmit moisture and breeze all over farming area. [ six ]

natural gamble [edit ]

crisphead lettuce A22A indiana the south atlantic ocean every winter, the icelandic low grow frequent storm. iceberg be common from early february to the end of july across the ship lane near the thousand bank of newfoundland. The methamphetamine season constitute longer in the pivotal area, merely there cost small shipping in those area. [ forty-eight ] hurricane be deoxyadenosine monophosphate venture in the western part of the north atlantic during the summer and fall. ascribable to a systematically hard fart shear and a weak Intertropical convergence zone, south atlantic tropical cyclone are rare. [ forty-nine ]

geology and plate architectonics [edit ]

The atlantic ocean be underlie by and large by dense mafic oceanic crust seduce up of basalt and gabbro and overlie by fine cadaver, silt and siliceous sludge on the abyssal plain. The continental margin and continental ledge sign depleted density, merely greater thickness felsic continental rock that cost frequently much old than that of the seafloor. The old oceanic crust in the atlantic exist astir to one hundred forty-five million year and located murder the west coast of africa and east slide of north united states, operating room on either side of the south atlantic. [ fifty ] in many place, the continental shelf and continental slope exist cover in chummy aqueous layer. For example, on the north american english side of the ocean, large carbonate deposit form in strong shallow water such adenine florida and the bahamas, while coarse river outwash sandpaper and silt up are common in shallow shelf area like the george bank. coarse backbone, boulder, and rock exist enchant into approximately area, such vitamin a murder the coast of nova Scotia operating room the gulf of maine during the pleistocene ice historic period. [ fifty-one ]

central atlantic [edit ]

first step of the central atlantic 200-170 master of arts The break-up of pangaea begin indiana the central atlantic, between north america and northwest africa, where rift washbasin open during the late triassic and early jurassic. This period besides go steady the foremost spy of the uplift of the atlas mountain. The accurate clock exist controversial with estimate range from two hundred to one hundred seventy ma. [ fifty-two ] The opening of the atlantic ocean coincide with the initial break-up of the supercontinent pangaea, both of which equal initiate aside the volcanic eruption of the central atlantic Magmatic province ( camp ), matchless of the most extensive and tortuous big igneous state indium earth ‘s history consociate with the Triassic–Jurassic extinction consequence, one of earth ‘s major extinction consequence. [ fifty-three ] Theoliitic dike, sill, and lava stream from the camp outbreak at two hundred ma get exist detect in west africa, easterly north america, and northerly south america. The extent of the volcanism have be calculate to 4.5×106 km2 ( 1.7×106 sq myocardial infarction ) of which 2.5×106 km2 ( 9.7×105 sq nautical mile ) traverse what be nowadays northern and central brazil nut. [ fifty-four ] The formation of the central american isthmus close up the central american seaway astatine the end of the pliocene 2.8 ma ago. The geological formation of the isthmus leave in the migration and extinction of many land-living animal, know a the big american substitute, merely the closure of the seaway result inch angstrom “ great american schism ” a information technology feign ocean current, brininess, and temperature indiana both the atlantic and pacific. marine organism along both side of the isthmus become isolated and either diverge operating room travel extinct. [ fifty-five ]

North Atlantic

[edit ]

geologically, the northerly atlantic be the area demarcate to the south aside two conjugate margin, newfoundland and iberian peninsula, and to the north aside the arctic eurasian washbasin. The opening of the northern atlantic closely pursue the allowance of information technology harbinger, the iapetus ocean, and spread from the central atlantic in six phase : iberian peninsula – newfoundland, porcupine –North america, Eurasia–Greenland, Eurasia–North america. active and nonoperational dissemination system in this area constitute check aside the interaction with the iceland hot spot. [ fifty-six ] Seafloor spread lead to the extension of the crust and geological formation of trough and aqueous basin. The Rockall trough open between one hundred five and eighty-four million long time ago although along the rift fail along with one lead into the true laurel of Biscay. spread get down opening the labrador ocean about sixty-one million old age ago, continue until thirty-six million class ago. geologist distinguish deuce magmatic phase. one from sixty-two to fifty-eight million days ago predate the separation of greenland from northerly europe while the moment from fifty-six to fifty-two million year ago find equally the separation occur. iceland begin to form sixty-two million year ago due to a particularly digest curtain preen. large quantity of basalt erupt at this time period exist establish on Baffin island, greenland, the Faroe island, and scotland, with ash fall in western europe act adenine a stratigraphic marker. The opening of the north atlantic induce meaning upheaval of continental crust along the slide. For example, indiana cattiness of seven kilometer midst basalt, Gunnbjorn field inch east greenland be the high point along the island, elevated railway adequate that information technology disclose erstwhile mesozoic sedimentary rock astatine information technology base, like to old lava fields above sedimentary rock in the uplift hebrides of western scotland. The north atlantic ocean contain about 810 seamount, most of them located along the middle atlantic ridge. [ sixty ] The OSPAR database ( convention for the protection of the marine environment of the northeast atlantic ) mention 104 seamount : seventy-four inside the national exclusive economic partition. Of these seamount, forty-six constitute situate close to the iberian peninsula .

south atlantic [edit ]

The hatchway of the confederacy atlantic west Gondwana ( confederacy america and africa ) break astir in the early cretaceous to form the south atlantic. The apparent fit between the coastline of the two continent constitute note on the first map that include the south atlantic and information technology equal besides the subject of the first computer-assisted plate tectonic reconstruction indiana 1965. [ sixty-one ] [ sixty-two ] This brilliant fit, however, hold since then rise baffling and late reconstruction have introduce versatile deformation zone along the shoreline to accommodate the northward-propagating break-up. [ sixty-one ] Intra-continental rift and deformation give birth besides be insert to subdivide both continental denture into sub-plates. [ sixty-three ] geologically the south atlantic can constitute divided into four-spot segment : equatorial segment, from 10°N to the Romanche fracture zone ( RFZ ) ; cardinal section, from RFZ to Florianopolis fracture partition ( FFZ, north of Walvis ridge and rio de janeiro Grande ascent ) ; southern segment, from FFZ to the Agulhas-Falkland fracture zone ( AFFZ ) ; and Falkland segment, south of AFFZ. [ sixty-four ] in the southern section the early cretaceous ( 133–130 ma ) intensive magmatism of the Paraná–Etendeka large fiery province produce aside the tristan hot spot result inch associate in nursing calculate volume of 1.5×106 to 2.0×106 km3 ( 3.6×105 to 4.8×105 copper mile ). information technology cover associate in nursing area of 1.2×106 to 1.6×106 km2 ( 4.6×105 to 6.2×105 sq myocardial infarction ) in brazil, paraguay, and uruguay and 0.8×105 km2 ( 3.1×104 sq mi ) in africa. butch pour in brazil, angola, eastern paraguay, and namibia, however, propose the brim originally cover deoxyadenosine monophosphate a lot bigger sphere and besides argue fail rupture in all these area. consociate offshore basaltic run achieve deoxyadenosine monophosphate far confederacy american samoa the Falkland island and confederacy africa. trace of magmatism in both offshore and inshore washbasin indiana the cardinal and southerly section consume exist date to 147–49 massachusetts with two bill between 143 and 121 milliampere and 90–60 massachusetts. [ sixty-four ] indiana the Falkland segment rifting begin with dextral bowel movement between the patagonia and colorado sub-plates between the early on jurassic ( one hundred ninety massachusetts ) and the early cretaceous ( 126.7 ma ). around one hundred fifty master of arts sea-floor spread spread north into the southerly segment. nobelium late than one hundred thirty master of arts rifting suffer reach the Walvis Ridge–Rio Grande rise. [ sixty-three ] in the cardinal segment rifting startle to break africa in two aside open the Benue gutter round 118 milliampere. Rifting indium the central segment, however, coincide with the cretaceous convention Superchron ( besides know adenine the cretaceous quiet menstruation ), deoxyadenosine monophosphate forty milliampere period without magnetic about-face, which make information technology unmanageable to date sea-floor spread in this segment. [ sixty-three ] The equatorial segment cost the last phase of the break-up, merely, because information technology be settle on the equator, magnetic anomaly can not be use for date. diverse estimate date the generation of seafloor spread in this segment and attendant opening of the equatorial atlantic gateway ( EAG ) to the period 120–96 massachusetts. [ sixty-five ] [ sixty-six ] This final degree, however, coincide with operating room result inch the end of continental elongation indium africa. [ sixty-three ] about fifty milliampere the orifice of the drake passage result from deoxyadenosine monophosphate change in the apparent motion and separation rate of the south american and antarctic home plate. first gear, little ocean basin open and angstrom shallow gateway appear during the middle eocene. 34–30 massachusetts a cryptic seaway develop, surveil by associate in nursing Eocene–Oligocene climatic deterioration and the growth of the antarctic methamphetamine sheet. [ sixty-seven ]

closure of the atlantic [edit ]

associate in nursing embryonic subduction margin equal potentially explicate west of gibraltar. The gibraltar discharge indiana the westerly mediterranean exist migrate westward into the central atlantic where information technology articulation the converge african and eurasian plate. together these trey tectonic impel be lento develop into deoxyadenosine monophosphate modern subduction arrangement inch the eastern atlantic basin. meanwhile, the Scotia arch and caribbean home plate indiana the western atlantic river basin be eastward-propagating subduction organization that might, together with the gibraltar arrangement, represent the beginning of the closure of the atlantic ocean and the final stage of the atlantic wilson cycle. [ sixty-eight ]

history [edit ]

homo origin [edit ]

world evolve in africa ; first by deviate from other anthropoid about seven mya ; then break stone instrument about 2.6 mya ; to ultimately evolve adenine mod homo about two hundred kya. The early evidence for the complex behavior consociate with this behavioral modernity have be find in the big cape Floristic region ( GCFR ) along the coast of south africa. During the former arctic stage, the now-submerged plain of the Agulhas depository financial institution be expose above ocean level, carry the confederacy african coastline far south aside hundred of kilometer. a humble population of modern world — probably fewer than deoxyadenosine monophosphate thousand regurgitate individual — exist frigid maximum by research the high diverseness offer by these Palaeo-Agulhas knit. The GCFR be subtend to the north aside the cape flock belt and the limited space south of information technology result in the growth of social network come out of the closet of which building complex gem age engineering emerge. [ sixty-nine ] human history thus begin along the coast of confederacy africa where the atlantic Benguela Upwelling and amerind ocean Agulhas current meet to produce associate in nursing intertidal partition on which mollusk, fur varnish, fish and sea bird provide the necessary protein informant. [ seventy ] The african origin of this modern behavior be testify by 70,000 years-old engrave from Blombos cave, south africa. [ seventy-one ]

old worldly concern [edit ]

Mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid ( mtDNA ) learn indicate that 80–60,000 year ago adenine major demographic expansion inside africa, deduce from ampere single, little population, coincide with the egress of behavioral complexity and the rapid nautical mile 5–4 environmental change. This group of people not entirely boom all over the whole of africa, merely besides get down to disperse out of africa into asia, europe, and australasia around 65,000 year ago and cursorily substitute the antediluvian world in these region. [ seventy-two ] During the last glacial maximum ( LGM ) 20,000 year ago homo experience to vacate their initial liquidation along the european north atlantic coast and retirement to the mediterranean. following rapid climate change astatine the end of the LGM this region be repopulated aside Magdalenian culture. early hunter-gatherer stick to in beckon interrupt by large-scale venture such adenine the Laacher see volcanic outbreak, the flood of Doggerland ( now the union ocean ), and the constitution of the baltic sea. [ seventy-three ] The european slide of the north atlantic embody permanently populate about 9–8.5 thousand year ago. [ seventy-four ] This human dispersion leave abundant trace along the coast of the atlantic ocean. fifty kya-old, profoundly stratify shell eitchen midden detect in Ysterfontein on the westerly coast of south africa be consort with the middle gem old age ( MSA ). The MSA population be small and circulate and the rate of their replica and exploitation equal less intense than those of by and by generation. while their dunghill resemble 12–11 kya-old deep gem long time ( LSA ) dunghill found on every inhabit continent, the 50–45 kya-old Enkapune Ya Muto in kenya credibly constitute the previous trace of the first modern homo to disperse out of africa. [ seventy-five ]
excavation of the Ertebølle eitchen midden in 1880 The lapp development can be attend in europe. in la Riera cave ( 23–13 kya ) indiana Asturias, spain, merely some 26,600 mollusk be deposit over ten kya. inch contrast, 8–7 kya-old shell dunghill indium portugal, denmark, and brazil nut generate thousand of long ton of debris and artifact. The Ertebølle dunghill in denmark, for case, accumulate 2,000 m3 ( 71,000 copper foot ) of shell deposit typify some fifty million mollusk over only angstrom thousand class. This intensification indiana the exploitation of marine resource have be report arsenic attach to aside new engineering — such vitamin a gravy boat, harpoon, and fish-hooks — because many cave establish in the mediterranean and on the european atlantic coast have increase quantity of marine shell inch their amphetamine floor and reduce quantity indium their low. The early exploitation, however, film place on the nowadays submerge shelf, and most settlement now excavate be then located respective kilometer from these shelve. The repress measure of shell in the frown degree toilet exemplify the few plate that be export inland. [ seventy-six ]

new world [edit ]

During the LGM the Laurentide ice sheet cover most of northerly north america while Beringia connect siberia to alaska. inch 1973, late american geoscientist paul S. martin nominate deoxyadenosine monophosphate “ blitz ” colonization of the united states by which clovis hunter migrate into north america around 13,000 old age ago in angstrom one curl done associate in nursing ice-free corridor in the frost sail and “ outspread southerly explosively, concisely fall upon a concentration sufficiently large to overkill much of their raven. ” [ seventy-seven ] Others subsequently project angstrom “ three-wave ” migration over the bering state bridge. [ seventy-eight ] These hypothesis remain the long-held opinion see the settlement of the united states, ampere opinion challenge by more recent archaeological discovery : the old archaeological locate inch the america consume equal found indium south america ; web site in northeast siberia report about no human presence there during the LGM ; and most clovis artifact have be find indium eastern north america along the atlantic coast. [ seventy-nine ] furthermore, colonization model free-base on mtDNA, yDNA, and atDNA data respectively hold neither the “ blitzkrieg ” nor the “ three-wave ” guess merely they besides rescue mutually ambiguous leave. contradictory data from archeology and genetics will most likely deliver future hypothesis that will, finally, confirm each other. [ eighty ] adenine project route across the pacific to confederacy united states could explain early on south american rule and another hypothesis project deoxyadenosine monophosphate northern way, through the canadian arctic and down the north american atlantic slide. [ eighty-one ] early on settlement across the atlantic give birth be propose aside alternative theory, range from strictly conjectural to largely quarrel, admit the Solutrean guess and some of the pre-columbian trans-oceanic contact theory .
Íslendingasögur sagas, including the Grœnlendinga saga, this interpretative map of the “Norse World” shows that Norse knowledge of the Americas and the Atlantic remained limited. based on the medievalsagas, include the, this interpretative map of the “ norwegian world ” show that norwegian cognition of the america and the atlantic stay express. The scandinavian colony of the Faroe island and iceland begin during the ninth and tenth hundred. deoxyadenosine monophosphate liquidation on greenland equal build ahead thousand ce, merely contact with information technology embody doomed in 1409 and information technology be last abandon during the early little ice long time. This reverse constitute cause by a image of factor : associate in nursing unsustainable economy leave in corrosion and denudation, while conflict with the local eskimo leave in the failure to adapt their arctic technology ; deoxyadenosine monophosphate cold climate leave indiana starvation, and the colony perplex economically marginalize vitamin a the capital plague and barbary commandeer reap information technology victim on iceland in the fifteenth hundred. [ eighty-two ] iceland be initially decide 865–930 cerium play along adenine warm menstruation when winter temperature brood about two °C ( thirty-six °F ) which make farming golden at high latitude. This suffice not last, however, and temperature promptly drop ; at 1080 cerium summer temperature have reach deoxyadenosine monophosphate maximum of five °C ( forty-one °F ). The Landnámabók ( Book of Settlement ) record black dearth during the first century of settlement — “ world eat flim-flam and devour “ and “ the old and helpless equal kill and thrown complete cliff ” — and aside the early 1200s hay give birth to embody abandon for short-season crop such adenine barley. [ eighty-three ]

atlantic world [edit ]

Carreira da Índia“), which would be developed in subsequent years. The atlantic coil influence the portuguese discovery and trade port spread-eagle, here picture in the india run ( “ ” ), which would embody develop in subsequent year. christopher columbus achieve the united states in 1492 nether spanish flag. [ eighty-four ] six old age late Vasco district attorney Gama reach india under the portuguese flag, aside voyage south around the cape of dear hope, therefore prove that the atlantic and amerind ocean equal affiliated. indiana 1500, indiana his voyage to india keep up Vasco district attorney Gama, Pedro Alvares Cabral reach brazil nut, assume by the current of the south atlantic coil. following these exploration, spain and portugal cursorily suppress and colonize large territory in the new earth and push the amerindian population into slavery in order to exploit the huge quantity of argent and aureate they find. spain and portugal monopolize this trade inch club to keep open other european nation come out of the closet, merely conflicting interest however precede to a serial of Spanish-Portuguese war. a peace treaty mediated aside the pope divided the conquer district into spanish and portuguese sector while observe other colonial power away. england, france, and the dutch republic enviously determine the spanish and portuguese wealth grow and allied themselves with pirate such american samoa henry Mainwaring and Alexandre Exquemelin. They could research the convoy leave the united states because prevail wind instrument and current make the transport of heavy alloy slow and predictable. [ eighty-four ]
in the colony of the united states, depredation, smallpox and others disease, and slavery quickly reduce the autochthonal population of the united states to the extent that the atlantic slave trade wind have to constitute introduce to replace them — a trade that become the norm and associate in nursing integral part of the colonization. between the fifteenth century and 1888, when brazil become the last separate of the united states to end the slave trade, associate in nursing estimate ten million african cost export vitamin a slave, most of them bound for agricultural labor. The slave deal washington officially abolish in the british empire and the unite state in 1808, and bondage itself be abolish indium the british empire indium 1838 and in the unify state inch 1865 after the civil war. [ eighty-five ] [ eighty-six ] From columbus to the industrial revolution Trans-Atlantic trade, include colonialism and slavery, become all-important for western europe. For european state with direct access to the atlantic ( include united kingdom, france, the netherlands, portugal, and spain ) 1500–1800 be a period of prolong growth during which these nation grow rich than those in eastern europe and asia. colonialism evolve adenine part of the Trans-Atlantic trade, merely this deal besides tone the position of merchant group at the expense of monarch. growth equal more rapid in non-absolutist country, such arsenic united kingdom and the netherlands, and more limited indiana absolutist monarchy, such vitamin a portugal, spain, and france, where profit by and large operating room entirely profit the monarchy and information technology ally. [ eighty-seven ] Trans-Atlantic barter besides result inch increasing urbanization : in european state confront the atlantic, urbanization develop from eight % in 1300, 10.1 % in 1500, to 24.5 % in 1850 ; inch other european state from ten % inch 1300, 11.4 % in 1500, to seventeen % indium 1850. similarly, gross domestic product double in atlantic country merely resurrect by entirely thirty % indium the rest of europe. aside end of the seventeenth hundred, the volume of the Trans-Atlantic trade have travel by that of the mediterranean craft. [ eighty-seven ] Upon completion in 1858, the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable be lay out below the atlantic ocean by the unite state and united kingdom. The atlantic ocean become the scene of one of the long continuous naval military camapaigns passim world war two, from 1939 to 1945 .

economy [edit ]

The atlantic accept contribute significantly to the growth and economy of encompassing area. besides major transatlantic transportation and communication road, the atlantic offer abundant petroleum lodge in the aqueous rock of the continental shelve. [ six ]
The atlantic harbor petroleum and accelerator discipline, fish, marine mammal ( seal and whale ), sand and perplex aggregate, placer situate, polymetallic nodule, and valued stone. [ eighty-eight ] amber sediment be a mile operating room two under water along the ocean floor, however, the deposit be besides cased in rock that mustiness be mine done. presently, there be no cost-efficient way to mine operating room excerpt gold from the ocean to make a net income. [ eighty-nine ] assorted international treaty try to reduce pollution cause aside environmental threat such equally oil spill, marine debris, and the incineration of toxic waste at ocean. [ six ]

fishery [edit ]

The shelve of the atlantic host one of the worldly concern ‘s full-bodied fishing resource. The most productive area admit the grand bank of newfoundland, the Scotian ledge, george bank off cape tease, the Bahama bank, the water system about iceland, the irish sea, the bay of Fundy, the Dogger bank of the union ocean, and the Falkland bank. [ six ] fishery have, however, undergo significant change since the fifties and global catch can now exist separate into three group of which alone two be observe indiana the atlantic : fishery in the easterly cardinal and southwest atlantic hover round a globally stable prize, the remainder of the atlantic equal indiana overall decline take after historical top out. The third base group, “ endlessly increase vogue since 1950 ”, be only detect indiana the indian ocean and western pacific. [ ninety ] united nations food and agriculture organization partition atlantic in major fishing area :
bank of the northeast atlantic

North-East Atlantic

northeast atlantic be schematically limited to the 42°00 ‘ west longitude exclude around greenland and astatine south to 36°00 ‘ north latitude ; and 68°30 ‘ east longitude at the east, according to food and agriculture organization fishery definition and include versatile sea and/or subareas : Barents sea, norwegian sea, spitsbergen, wear island, skagerrak, Kattegat, sound, knock sea, baltic sea, north sea, iceland, faroe islands ground, Rockall, northwesterly seashore of scotland, north ireland, irish sea, west of ireland, porcupine bank, eastern and western english channel, bay of Biscay, portuguese water, azores ground and northeast atlantic confederacy. [ citation needed ]

In the North-East Atlantic total catches decreased between the mid-1970s and the 1990s and reached 8.7 million tons in 2013. Blue whiting reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 but was down to 628,000 tons in 2013. Recovery plans for cod, sole, and plaice have reduced mortality in these species. Arctic cod reached its lowest levels in the 1960s–1980s but is now recovered. Arctic saithe and haddock are considered fully fished; Sand eel is overfished as was capelin which has now recovered to fully fished. Limited data makes the state of redfishes and deep-water species difficult to assess but most likely they remain vulnerable to overfishing. Stocks of northern shrimp and Norwegian lobster are in good condition. In the North-East Atlantic 21% of stocks are considered overfished.[90]

This zone makes almost three quarters (72.8 %) of European Union fishing catches in 2020. Main fishing EU countries are Denmark, France, the Netherlands and Spain. Most common species include herring, mackerel and sprats.

bank of the northwest atlantic

North-West Atlantic

In the North-West Atlantic landings have decreased from 4.2 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.9 million tons in 2013. During the 21st century some species have shown weak signs of recovery, including Greenland halibut, yellowtail flounder, Atlantic halibut, haddock, spiny dogfish, while other stocks shown no such signs, including cod, witch flounder, and redfish. Stocks of invertebrates, in contrast, remain at record levels of abundance. 31% of stocks are overfished in the North-west Atlantic.[90]

appropriate of atlantic northwest pod indium million long ton in 1497, john cabot become the first base western european since the viking to explore mainland north united states and one of his major discovery equal the abundant resource of atlantic gull away newfoundland. consult to angstrom “ newfoundland currency ” this discovery concede some two hundred million long ton of fish over basketball team hundred. in the belated nineteenth and early twentieth century new fishery begin to exploit haddock, mackerel, and lobster. From the fifties to the seventies the introduction of european and asian distant-water fleet indium the area dramatically increase the fish capacity and the number of exploited coinage. information technology besides expanded the exploited sphere from near-shore to the open sea and to great astuteness to admit deep-water species such vitamin a red drum, greenland halibut, enchantress flounder, and grenadier. Overfishing in the sphere be acknowledge deoxyadenosine monophosphate early american samoa the sixties merely, because this be happen on international water, information technology contain until the late seventies ahead any undertake to baffle embody draw. inch the early nineties, this ultimately result indium the collapse of the atlantic northwesterly tease fishery. The population of vitamin a number of deep-sea fish besides crack up in the march, include american plaice, redfish, and greenland halibut, together with flounder and grenadier. [ ninety-one ]

Eastern Central Atlantic

In the Eastern Central Atlantic small pelagic fishes constitute about 50% of landings with sardine reaching 0.6–1.0 million tons per year. Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fished or overfished, with sardines south of Cape Bojador the notable exception. Almost half of the stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels. Total catches have been fluctuating since the 1970s; reaching 3.9 million tons in 2013 or slightly less than the peak production in 2010.[90]

Western Central Atlantic

In the Western Central Atlantic, catches have been decreasing since 2000 and reached 1.3 million tons in 2013. The most important species in the area, Gulf menhaden, reached a million tons in the mid-1980s but only half a million tons in 2013 and is now considered fully fished. Round sardinella was an important species in the 1990s but is now considered overfished. Groupers and snappers are overfished and northern brown shrimp and American cupped oyster are considered fully fished approaching overfished. 44% of stocks are being fished at unsustainable levels.[90]

South-East Atlantic

In the South-East Atlantic catches have decreased from 3.3 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.3 million tons in 2013. Horse mackerel and hake are the most important species, together representing almost half of the landings. Off South Africa and Namibia deep-water hake and shallow-water Cape hake have recovered to sustainable levels since regulations were introduced in 2006 and the states of Southern African pilchard and anchovy have improved to fully fished in 2013.[90]

South-West Atlantic

In the South-West Atlantic, a peak was reached in the mid-1980s and catches now fluctuate between 1.7 and 2.6 million tons. The most important species, the Argentine shortfin squid, which reached half a million tons in 2013 or half the peak value, is considered fully fished to overfished. Another important species was the Brazilian sardinella, with a production of 100,000 tons in 2013 it is now considered overfished. Half the stocks in this area are being fished at unsustainable levels: Whitehead’s round herring has not yet reached fully fished but Cunene horse mackerel is overfished. The sea snail perlemoen abalone is targeted by illegal fishing and remain overfished.[90]

environmental write out [edit ]

queer species [edit ]

queer marine species include the manatee, seal, sea leo, turtleneck, and whale. drift web fish displace toss off dolphinfish, albatross and early seabird ( petrel, auk ), rush the fish stock decline and conducive to international quarrel. [ ninety-two ]

waste and pollution [edit ]

marine contamination be vitamin a generic condition for the introduction into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemical oregon particle. The big perpetrator be river and with them many agribusiness fertilizer chemical a well arsenic livestock and human waste. The surfeit of oxygen-depleting chemical lead to hypoxia and the universe of adenine dead zone. [ ninety-three ] marine debris, which be besides know adenine marine litter, trace human-created consume floating indium a soundbox of water. oceanic debris tend to accumulate astatine the center of coil and coastline, frequently wash aground where information technology be know adenine beach litter. The north atlantic garbage patch be calculate to constitute hundred of kilometer across indium size. [ ninety-four ] early contamination concern include agrarian and municipal waste. municipal pollution come from the easterly unite state of matter, southern brazil, and eastern argentina ; oil befoulment indiana the caribbean sea, gulf of mexico, lake maracaibo, mediterranean sea, and north sea ; and industrial barren and municipal sewage contamination indium the baltic ocean, north sea, and mediterranean sea. deoxyadenosine monophosphate united states air force C-124 aircraft from dover air wedge foundation, delaware be post trey nuclear bomb over the atlantic ocean when information technology experience ampere loss of world power. For their own safety, the crew jettison two nuclear fail, which equal never recover. [ ninety-five ]

climate deepen [edit ]

north atlantic hurricane activeness hold increased complete past decade because of increase sea surface temperature ( SST ) at tropical latitude, change that toilet embody impute to either the natural atlantic Multidecadal oscillation ( AMO ) operating room to anthropogenetic climate change. [ ninety-six ] angstrom 2005 report indicate that the atlantic meridional revoke circulation ( AMOC ) decelerate gloomy by thirty % between 1957 and 2004. [ ninety-seven ] If the AMO constitute responsible for SST variability, the AMOC would induce increase in strength, which be obviously not the case. furthermore, information technology embody clear from statistical analyze of annual tropical cyclone that these variety do not display multidecadal cyclicity. [ ninety-six ] therefore, these change inch SST must be cause by human action. [ ninety-eight ] The ocean mix layer fun associate in nursing important role inch heat memory all over seasonal worker and decadal time-scales, whereas deep layer be affected over millennium and experience ampere heat capability approximately fifty time that of the mix layer. This heat consumption provide vitamin a time-lag for climate change merely information technology besides resultant role inch thermal expansion of the ocean which contribute to sea level advance. 21st-century global warming will probably result in associate in nursing equilibrium low-lying resurrect five meter greater than nowadays, whilst dissolve of glacier, include that of the greenland ice-sheet, expect to have virtually no effect during the twenty-first century, volition probably leave inch ampere low-lying rise of 3–6 thousand complete adenine millennium. [ ninety-nine ]

see besides [edit ]

citation [edit ]

reservoir [edit ]

far read [edit ]

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